Policy analysis Flashcards
1
Q
What is a policy? (Define the three analytical dimensions)
A
Polity: The institutional arrangements
characterizing a political system. The formel and informal rule of the games - determine how you make policies.
Politics: Policy-making process within the polity, involving various actors and their interactions.
Policy: a 1. Course of action (or non-action) taken by a government or legislature to address a particular issue/particular action. b. Means of exercising power of one social/political group over another.
2
Q
Arrange the three major analytical dimensions into an equation:
A
Polity /institutions) + Politics (actors) = Policy
We can keep one factor constant and then see the changes - it is usefull to predict and analyze what happens.
3
Q
Give an example of differences in scope regarding a policy
A
Scope 1: Environmental policy
Scope 2: Air policy, water policy, climate policy.
Scope 3: Air policy - emission of smog and particles
Scope 4: Emission allowrances or particle filters for cars
4
Q
Explain the most important elements of the rational approach (Lasswell 1956).
(How policy-making should be sequentially organized to achieve the optimal solution)
A
The policy process is rational and ideally follows a logic sequences - the following phases:
- intelligence (collection and processing of all relevant knowledge and information),
- promotion (identification and support of selected alternative),
- prescription (imposition of a binding decision),
- invocation (policy enforcement),
- termination (abrogation of policy),
- appraisal (evaluation of policy effects - against the backdrop of initial objectives and intentions).
5
Q
What it the critic of the rational approach to policy making-process?
A
- It is overly ambitions to think that in reality the actors follow such a logic sequence of phases
- Is it possible to ever have a full collection of all relevant knowledge and information on a policy problem.
- Static rather than dynamic view on the process of policy making.
6
Q
Define and explain the incremental approach to a policy-making process?
A
The theory of the incrementalism rejected the idea of public policy being mad eon the basis of a fully rational decison-making process.
The incremental model beliefs that public policy is regarded as the political result of the interaction of carious actors possesing diffrent types of information. These actors are characterized by different constraints and interests witch influence the policy decision.
- Policy-makers act within the context of bounded
information, time and limited cognitive resources i.e. bounded rationality where they search for satisfactory solution rather than the optimal one. - The process of ‘partisan mutual adjustment’ can only lead to one outcome: incremental policy change.
- Purports to be a realistic description of how policy-makers arrive at their decisions.
7
Q
What it the critique of the incremental model? (approach to policy making process)
A
Even though the incremental model builds upon the concept of bounded rationality, it still presumes that policy-making is characterized by an rational process - the Garbage can model will criticize this and argue that the policy proces do not follow a orderly process at all.
8
Q
Define and explain the garbage can model? (Analytical approach to understand the policy process)
A
Policy-making do not follow an orderly proces from problem to solution - instead it is the outcome of relatively independent streams of events. Solutions exist and develop independently of the problem.
Policy is the result of independent streams:
- Actors within an organization go through the ‘garbage’ first and look for a suitable fix, i.e. the ‘solution’.
- The actors involved in the development of solutions might be different from those who discuss the definition of the respective policy problems.
9
Q
Define the four policy stages?
A
- Problem and agenda-setting: Why do perceptions of definitions of policy problems change over time/vary across countries?
Why are certain problems ignored while others are placed on the agenda? - Policy formulation and adaption:
How do policy decisions come about? How can policy outputs be explained? - Implementation:
Why do certain policies fail?
Which factors account for the variance in policy implementation? - Evaluation:
How can policy effects (outcomes and impacts) be measured?
Which factors explain variation in policy effects?
Notes: All these stages should be viewed as a political lens - within a certain perspective.
10
Q
Which typologies do we have that can be used to make an analytical classification of different policies?
A
Wilson policy typology, Lowi policy typology and Hood and Margetts (2007) NATO-model
11
Q
Define and explain Lowi policy typology
A
Type of policy:
A: Regulatory policies:
Policies specifying conditions and constraints for individual and collective behaviour.
B: Distributive policies
(Policies distributing new (state) resources.
C: Redistributive policies (Policies modifying the distribution of exsisting resources)
D: Constituent policies (Policies creating or modifying the states institutions)
12
Q
Give an example of a regulatory policy
A
Environmental protection, migration policy, consumers protection.
13
Q
Give an example of distributive policies and explain what the political dynamic normally is?
A
Example: Farm subsidies, local infrastructure such as high way or schools.
The political dynamic is normally low/there is consensus because cost are spread.
14
Q
Give an example of redistributive policies and explain the political dynamic?
A
Example: Welfare, land reform, taxation reforms
The conflict level is normally high due to winners and losers.
15
Q
Give an example of a constituent policy? And explain the political dynamic?
A
Changes of procedural rules of parliaments, creation of new governmental agencies.
Political dynamic is low conflict due to elite powered status of the changes
16
Q
What is the criticism of Lowi’s (1972) typology ?
A
- Regulatory policies may have distributive and redistributive effects.
- Difficult to distinguish between distributive and redistributive policies: The classification depends on the individual perception of the actors concerned.
- Policy makers may try to strategic name a policy to influence the societal actors perceived idea of the policy (labelling a policy as distributive even though it has redistributive effects)
- Classification is context dependent: The perception of wether a policy is distributive or redistributive varies over time (es example of an economic boom)
- Not up to date. What about moral issues?. We should emphasize that the effects of a policy can hardly be considered as the only factor influencing patterns of policy making. Many other variables such as; institutional agreements, the party system or general relationships between state and society might have an impact.
17
Q
Explain Wilsons typology?
A
Wilsons typology is used to classify who carries the cost and who benefits form the policy.
Each of the four possible combinations yields different impacts on the policy.
Cost-Concentrated & Benefits Concentrated:
When both cost and benefits of a certain policy are concentrated a government maybe confronted with opposition from rival interest groups. Policy decisions will be strongly affected by the positions and resources of relevant interest associations. The level of conflict is high and the outcome is unpredictable (should give a way for the incremental-model of decision making). Example: Agriculture - hormone treated beef or antibiotics in the pigs.
Cost-diffuse & Benefits Concentrated:
Government is likely to be confronted with relevant interest groups that is favorable to their reform. This type of politics suggest the most politically feasible environment for policy change as it offers relatively concentrated benefits e.g. assistance to an identifiable group of citizens. Examples are health programmes that benefit special groups. The Clientistic politics mostly take place behind the scenes and are the result of consensus between political actors and interest groups which allows both sides to pursue their respective interests. There is a low level of conflict.
Cost-concentrated and Benefits-diffuse:
If costs are concentrated and benefits diffuse, a government may encounter opposition form dominant interest groups. In this case entrepreneurial politics are the probable outcome: political entreprenuers who are willing to develop and put though policy proposal despite hard societal pressure. Political dynamic: high level of conflict. Example: Typically comes with events such as natural disaters.
Benefits-diffuse & cost diffuse: When both cost and benefits is widely distributed a government may encounter no or only minor opposition, indicating majoritarian politics as the likely outcome, with policy-makers following a very closely the preferences of the electorate when making their decisions. The political dynamic is low level of conflicts. Example: Universel health care (spread both benefits and cost)
18
Q
Critique of Wilsons typology?
A
- It is not a really concrete model → it is a bit unclear.
- It is a bit hard to differentiate between concentrated and diffuse.
19
Q
Compare Lowis typology to Wilsons typology? (strength and weaknesses)
A
The approach by wilson is analytically more compelling since its is more precise about the characteristics of policy-making and the actors involved.
Wilsons typology is also more dynamic, since formulating a policy may shift from one type of politics to another.
Lowi - more static and not up to date. Do not take in count the other variables that affect and influence the policy process.
20
Q
Define and explain Hood and Margetts (2007) typology?
A
They are classifying public policies based on the underlying governance principle and instrument in the NATO model.
Governance principle:
Nodality
Authority
Tressure
Organization
Under each governance principle is a basic resources, a governance logic, and typical instruments.
21
Q
Explain “Nodality” in the NATO model?
And explain its basic resource, governance logic, and typical instruments.
A
Nodality refers to the central role of governments in terms of their role in distributing information within political systems.
The basic resource: Information
Governance logic: Indirect stimulation of behavioral change through information and persuasion (changing individual or collective behaviour in order to achieve a political objectives.
Example: Public information campaign regarding smoking. Publicizing reports and data made by the agencies.
Advantage: It is a relative low cost of application and implementation. Appear to be a good tool in relative short-term crises situations.
Weakness: Limited and uncertain effectiveness.
22
Q
Explain “Authority” in the NATO model?
And explain its basic resource, governance logic, and typical instruments.
A
Authority is defined as the states use of law as a central resource for governmental intervention. Implies the legitimacy of legal or official power and gives the ability to force societal actors to follow legal rules.
Basic resource: Law
Typical instruments:
Demand, forbidding, bans, standards. There is economic regulation (taxes, price bans) and social regulation (health and safety at work)
Example: Smooching bans in public places, age restrictions on alcohol.
Advantage: Directly behavioral changes by altering the legal conditions. Highly predictable. Government have minor budget prevention.
Disadvantages:
Regulation entails high cost in terms of regulating and monitoring their proper inforcement. Secondly, no incentive for policies to go beyond legal requirements: minimize innovation. Third: Danger of regulating capture.
23
Q
Explain “Treasure” in the NATO model?
And explain its basic resource, governance logic, and typical instruments.
A
This tool is based on money of the various economic tools of government.
Basic instrument: money
Typical instruments:
Treasure involve positive and negative financial incentives. Taxes, User charges, grants.
Example: Grants for research at universities, or grants for public transportation.
Advantage: Easier to implement than control- and monitoring-intensive regulatory policies. Economic tools are carazterised as a high levels of political acceptance, as benefits are relatively concentrated on certain groups and cost are widely spread.
Disadvantages:
Strongly effect the public budget (as long as redistribute rather than distribute)
Difficult to calculate the level of incentives in such a way that they actually unfold their expected effects.
24
Q
Explain “Organization” in the NATO model?
And explain its basic resource, governance logic, and typical instruments.
A
Basic instrument: Structures and capacity
Governance logic: Provision of public good or service by the state or state enterprise (rail-way companies). The provision of public good relies on the direct provision of public goods by the state it self (do not just regulate).
Typical instruments: Public organisation
Example: Government-run smoking cessation programs.
Advantages:
Problems indirect provision are avoided, including Political conflicts, long processes of negotiation or ineffective implementation,
Disadvantages:
Public enterprises might lead to ineffecient operations, because of poor performance does not lead to bankrupt.
25
Define the three policy dimensions?
Policy output: The direct result of the decision-making process which usually involves the adoption of law.
Policy outcome: The way policies induce behavioral change on the side of the targeted actors.
Policy impact: The extent to which a policy decision has actually brought about the expected results. Focus on the extent to which a policy decision and its subsequent implementation have actually brought about the expected results. In this context the focus lies not only on the changes for achieving the predefined goals of a particular public policy.
26
Define Peter Halls typology (who distinguishes between three components of policy output)
1. Policy paradigms (the overarching goal that guides a policy in a particular field.
2. Policy instruments (means used to achieve these goals)
3. The precise setting or calibration of these instruments.
Hall developed this typology in his analysis of economic policy change in Britain.
In this context so-called first-order changes refer to constellations in which only the calibration of policy instruments is adjusted (instruments setting). Example is tightening or weakening of environmental emission standards.
Second order: changes in instruments. Imply minor adjustment to existing instruments are abolished or replaced by others.
The most fundamental category of change - third order. These refer to the goals guiding a policy in a particular field, including how the problem at hand should be understood. Change in paradigm.
27
Define the term "policy style"
Policy styles refer to the standard operating procedures of governments in the making and implementing of public policies.
28
Define the four ideal policy styles (Richardson et. al.)
Acoording to Richardsen et. al. there are two dimensions determing national policy styles, The first dimension relates to a governments apporach to problem solvinging, ranging from anticipatory/active to reactive. The second dimension is about governments relationship to other actors in the policy making process, characterized vy their inclination either to reach concensus with organized groups or to impose decisions. Based on the two axes, four ideal policy styles are identified for west European countries are identified:
1. The rationalist consensus style in Germany
1. The British negotiation style
2. The French concerting style
3. The Dutch negotiation and conflict style.
Empirical studies of policy styles reach contradictory conclusions regarding the empirical relevance of this approach.
29
Define the matrix for potential determinants of policy styles
Country specific
- Hig stability: Socioeconomic, development status, cultural orientation, institutional arrangements
- Low Stability:
Economic situation, Public opinion, government, coalition/government change.
Sector specific:
- High stability:
Nature of the problem, Policy paradigms, typical cleavages and conflict.
- Low stability:
Pressure of problem, current experience current policy developments, current conflicts and bargaining process.
30
Define the terms "actors" in the context of public policy
Actors: As a group of individuals who participate in policy processes and whose preferences will ultimaltely determine the policy choice.
31
Define the term "institutions"
Institutions as established sets of formal rules that determine extent to which actors preferences may be transported into public policies. The institutions we talked about are those who correspond to formal organizations.
32
What is the most essential institution in the political system?
The most essential institution in a political system is its constitution; a set of formal principles and rules in which a state is governed. In some states they are flexible → in others rigid (so they cannot easily be modified to deal with short term policy).
- Determines the centralization of power.
- Constitutions establish the three banches of government and assign them to make, implement and interpret laws.
- In most countries the constitution is protected by a supreme court.
- Abstract review; check that a legislative bill is compatible with the constitution before it enters into force.
33
What does the concept of policy styles seeks to identify?
It seeks to identify stable country- or sector specific patterns of policy-making. In this the political dimensions are important.
34
What are the three characteristics we must pay attention to in order to understand how actors determine policy output?
1. their capabilities
2. perceptions
3. preferences
35
Define the term "public actors"
Actors who are elected by the people.
36
Define the three most important public actors?
1. The executive
2. The legislature
3. The judiciary
37
What is the difference between government as institution and government as collective actor?
The government as an institution is defined by its formal powers.
The government as collective actors is defined as persons who have preferences regarding the policy area they are responsible for and which they express in front of others.
38
Define the horizontal and vertical power seperation.
Horizontal power seperation is among the three most important public actors:
1. Executive
2. Legislative
3. Judiciary.
Vertical power seperation is:
- National level (example is federalism)
- Subnational level
39
What is a constitution and what is its most important role?
- The constitution is a set of fundamental principles and rules/laws that determine how a country should be governed.
- In some countries the constitution is flexible, meaning that they can be changed by regular majoriatian vote. In other countries they are more rigid and any changes must be approved by super-majorities.
- The constitutions set the most basic rule of the game in any government in how power can be executed.
40
Define a federal system of power?
A federal system of power is a vertical power seperation. It gives out some regional power, such that national power is distributed out between a national government and usually some states.
The advantage is that a federal system may have better encounter with regional problems than the national government (like in the US). It also drives innovation: as policies that turned out will in one state might be implemented in another state.
Disadvantage: Economic aspect. Maintaining individual parliaments, governments and administrations on a federal level is expensive.
41
What/and how is the constitution protected?
The constitution is protected by a supreme court. In some countries like Denmark, ordinary courts are fulfilling the task
42
What does the horizontal division of power (legislature, executive and judiciary) and potential vertical power devision (federal/unitary state) have of consequence for policy-making?
The speed og change and the number of options available.
43
What is the role of the executive?
The executive is in charge of implementing public policies and have the administrative responsibility to the bureaucracy.
44
What is the role of the legislature?
The legislature (the parliament) is the branch of government endowed with the competency to make legislation.
45
Define the three forms of democratic government?
Presidential, semi-presidential and parliamentary.
46
What is the electoral systems (majoritarian/proportional) consequence for policy-making?
The speed of change and the number of options available.
47
Which are the most important international institutions?
Supranational, delegated sovereignty and may adopt rules that take precedence and direct effect in the member states. Example: EU.
Can limit national actors freedom and options to a large extent.
Intergovernmental: not delegated sovereignty and therefor dependent on the voluntary compliance of the Member States. Examples: UN and WTO.
Can limit national actors freedom and options to some extent.
48
What is the role of the bureaucracy?
- For implementing the policy the executives relies on the bureaucracy. They are not only involved in the policy implementation, but also in the formulation do to their expertise and knowledge.
- Two types of bureaucracy; the implementing and the ministerual bureaucracy.
- Provides stability and structure to the process → political neutral (Denmark). The bureaucracy that are not political natural (USA) will be less stabile to the process.
49
Is a unitary state synonymous with a centralized state?
No not necessarily. It depends on the horizontal seperation of power. It depends on the concentration of the decision-making power in the hands of government.
50
What is the speed-level of policy processes in unitary vs. federal states?
In unitary states, the research indicates that the state tend to change policies to a greater extent and more rapidly. Unitary state in comparison to federal states seems to monetary policies more swiftly and radically, moving quickly from high to low inflation-interest.
In Unitary states the number of actors having to consent in order to enable a policy to pass is lower than in federal states, which is likely to increase the speed of policy-making as well as the radicalism of the measures proposed (which can be good or bad depending on the context).
51
What are the two primary electoral systems?
Proportional representation:
Seats are shared among parties in proportion to te share of votes they have received. Some countries use tiers: where the seats a devoted first in lower ties (valgmandskredse) and then in higher tie (national level).
Majoritarian systems: The strongest party in each constituency wins the seats. This is a very straight forward way of voting.
52
Who are the most important private actors?
A: Interest groups: Trying to influence the policy-making process in accordance with their members interests.
B: Interest groups (public): Trying to influence the policy making process in a given area (not only for its members but on a broader more public level)
C: Social groups 1) Defines themselves negatively vis-a-vis other groups 2) collective identity 3) Collective action options. Often a question of top-down vs. bottom up
D: Experts: Individuals or groups trying to influence policy making on the basis of special knowledge, but not necessarily with a particular goal in mind (neutral).
53
Explain the macro level/structure based theories?
The Cleavage approach (Lipset & Rokkan 1967)
Basic assumption(s):
* That certain enduring socioeconomic problems exist in societies which affect policy choices by means of
creating lasting divisions between social groups (i.e. social cleavages).
* The main argument is that variation in the importance of cleavages explains variation in policy.
The six cleavages:
1. Centre-periphery
2. State-Church
3. Rural-Urban
4. Workers-employers
5. Materialists-Postmaterialist
6. Open-Closed Societies
54
Who are the actors involved in a policy evaluation?
Actors involved in the policy evaluation are diverse, ranging from researchers consulting firms, think tanks and NGOs, to courts, political bodies and the executive.
55
Define an administrative evaluation
Administrative evaluation is usually carried out within government bodies and examines the delivery of government services. It is performed by specialist agencies: financial, legal and political overseers, or private consultants.
56
What is the main objective of the administrative evaluation?
The main objective of the administrative evaluation is that the policy attains their goals at the least possible cost and least burden on the policy addresses. - It attains the policies effectiveness and efficiency – whether the best possible affect is achieved by the lowest possible use of resources.
57
Define and explain a process evaluation, effort evaluation, efficiency evaluation and an effectiveness evaluation.
Process evaluation is about exploring possibilities for making operating procedures more efficient.
Effort evaluation assesses the amount of effort governments put into attaining their policy objectives.
Efficiency evaluation is about a public policies costs and the ways of accomplishing intended goals at lower cost.
Effectiveness evaluation compares the goals of the policy, and the ones accomplished.
58
Explain the difference between ex ante og ex post evaluation?
Ex post: Assessment of the delivery of government services, after it has ben done.
Ex ante: Policy appraisal, that seek to inform decision makers of the predicted effects before a potential policy is made.
59
What is the aim of the administrative evaluation?
The aim of the administrative procedure is to increase the empirical basis of political decisions and to make regulatory processes more transparent.
60
Define and explain a judicial evaluation
- It is principally concerned with legal issues relating to the way in which policies are developed and implemented.
- Judicial evaluation represents one of the few means in which private actors can challenge the activities of public actors.
61
Define and explain a political evaluation
Political evaluation is based on a rather unsystematic and technically not very sophisticated way of gathering and interpreting information about public policies.
It is not a tool for policy evaluation, but more a tool to frame a policy in a positive or negative way.
It is strongly related to the party competition.
62
What is the risk of a political evaluation?
Political parties, and private actors such as fish tanks, NGOs and interest groups can use political evaluations as an instrument rather than a tool to measure policy effects - it can put a certain policy in good or bad light in terms of how it is framed.
63
Explain a scientific evaluation
- Policy evaluation can also constitute a social scientific activity which aims to provide neutral answers to the question of whether a given policy is effective or not.
- The evaluation is conducted by social scientists in accordance to research standards.
64
What is the disadvantage with scientific evaluation?
It can only be carried out by experts in the field.
A systemic scientific evaluation requires time and resources that are typically not available to policy makers. Especially in situations where the findings are to used in the policy evaluation is difficult to provide.
Evaluation research is only loosely connected to the political process that produces public policies.
65
Explain the difference between effectiveness and efficiency?
Effectiveness: To what degree do the policy improve the policy problem intended.
Efficiency: Whether the minimum resources has been used.
66
What is the different between types of evaluation and types of methods?
Evaluation type:
The evaluation type used to conduct and evaluate a certain policy.
Evaluation methods:
The tools used in different types of evaluations. There is four: Experimental, performance, qualitative and economic.
67
What kind of evaluation methods are usually used in an administrative evaluation?
Economic and performance methods - in order to address efficiency terms of the policy.
68
What kind of evaluation methods are used for administrative evaluation?
Experimental and qualitative methods - mainly interested in the effectiveness of the policy.
69
Define McDavid and Hawthorn (2006) five steps for evaluation?
1. Identification of the clients of the evaluation
2. Evaluation questions have to be formulated
3. Assessment of the resources available to carry out the evaluation project.
4. A detailed analysis of the effects of the policy measure
5. The selection of the most appropriate evaluation strategy (qualitative, qualitative)
70
Why is policy evaluation important?
Policy evaluation is important to assess the impact and outcome of new policies (effectiveness)
71
What is the challenge with policy evaluation in the political system?
Challenge with evaluation in a setting where political priorities may change and alter the policy before it is fully implemented
Another problem is the time and resource consumption it usually takes.
72
Explain the two fundamental different views on policy evaluation?
On the one hand, there is the scientific realist who argue for the possibility of an objective description. They advocate a separation of facts and values with the aim of producing politically neutral knowledge.
On the other hand, there is the social constructivist, who argue that the evaluation process itself is based on values and therefore is socially constructed, and there is no such thing politically neutral knowledge.
73
Policy evaluation is based on four criteria - explain them
1. A policy is successful when the implementing actors achieve the objectives laid down in legal act.
2. Whether the policy output produces the intended outcomes and/or impact.
3. The benefits it brings to the target group
4. Meeting the criteria of the respective policy domain.
74
What is the central idea behind evidence-based-policy making?
The central idea is that evidence based policy making seek to reform the policy process by applying for decision-making criteria that are evidence based.
The underlying idea is that governments can learn from previous experience and thereby avoid errors in the past
75
In what ways can an evaluation be political?
There are many different ways in which an evaluation can be political. What they all have in common is the objective to stay in power or to induce change in the partisan composition of government. Sometimes an evaluation of a policy can even be determined by the wish of a politician to frame a in a way that benefits his/or hers position.
76
Define the energy trilemma?
The balance between the following three dimensions:
Affordability, security of supply and sustainability.
77
What is the the major paradox of EU energy policy?
The major paradox of EU energy policy – the tension between national sovereignty over the energy sector and a community perspective based on solidarity, cooperation and scale.
The Energy Union could be a platform to assure that decarbonization of European economies is conducted in a coherent, efficient and timely manner.
Energy policy is still very much dominated by national policies and under the control of member states. EU institutions now play a more dominate and sufficient role.
78
The difference between liberal governmentalism and supranationalism (in relation to energy policies)?
Liberal governmentalism: National sovereignty - it is up to each country to decide over their energy plan. No need to share or pool resources, or make coherence in each member states energy transition
Supranational: The need to pool resources, combine infrastructures, unite bargaining power, diversify energy sources and reduce energy dependency of several vulnerable states, it also added strengthening the share of renewable energy sources. Internal marked - we buy and trade with one another.
- The tension between a pan-
79
What is the two main criteria for assessing the adequacy of EU climate governance?
1. greenhouse gas (GHG) emission targets
2. bindingness and stringency of the policy framework
80
Define the term thickness of policy instruments in relation to energy policies?
Thickening of the instrument mix: We consider the ‘thickness’ of a policy mix to correspond to the number and diversity of different policy instruments it comprises.
Different types: Regulatory instruments rely on command-and prohibitions. Economic instruments aim to guide behavior. Informational instruments creating awareness and generating and diffusing knowledge (example: product labeling). Procedural: how agencies and governance should be done.
The more variety of the policy instrument used, the thicker it is: an example is mix of regulatory, information, economic and procedural instruments in one policy framework.
81
Define the term CPI?
CPI (Climate policy integration)
There is two dimensions: scope (sectoral or national) and strength (hard and soft laws)
A CPI that is high in scope and high in strength can say to make the biggest transformation.
82
What are the main dilemmas for policymakers in energy policy?
The energy trilemma: affordability, sustainability and security of supply. It can be hard to balance these three trilemmas when doing policy, often it is affordability and security of supply that is prioritized over sustainability.
The balance between national power/sovereignty of members state to ensure their own energy policies, and on the other hand members states willingness to give up sovereignty to supranational institutions like the EU. This depends on each members states situation, where each members state has many different contexts, and starting point, and some members states economy rely on selling gas or oil. It is hard to harmonize policy on the national and EU level.
83
What is an energy transition?
A structural change in the energy composition from fossil fuels driven to climate neutrality relying on renewable energy sources – a complex system change. Decarbonizing the industries.
High CPI and thick policy mix of instruments: Climate transition is in every aspect of policies, and the transformation is in a broad scope.
Low CPI and low degree of thickness of instruments: Climate transition is narrower to a sectoral level, and the transformation has a minor scope.
84
What are the challenges in a European and international context, to developing common aims in renewable energy, and CO2 reductions?
There are multiple challenges, which relies to the energy trilemma: affordability, security of supply and sustainability. Different economic interest and prioritize, due to very different contexts for each state. There are large differences between the different national energy plans, which makes it hard to plan on the supranational level. Some countries industry and labor market are very dependent on an energy source that may not be renewable.
85
Which instruments are used by national actors in conjunction with the energy transition?
Bans, subsidies, tax, loans.
86
Explain classic institutionalism (meso-level theory)
Basic assumption: Formal rules in a
political system are the independent
variables and the functions of the state including policy formation the
dependent. Policy making is influenced by the nature of its institutions.
Types: Majoritarian vs consensus
democracies (Lijphart 1999) or
different families of countries: Anglo-
Saxon, Continental European,
Scandinavian, Southern European
(Castels 1998)
87
Explain the difference between a majoritarian democracy and a consensus democracy - how does it influence policy styles?
Majoritarian democracy: Majoritarian electoral system, few parties, centralized government.
Consensus democracy: Proportional electoral system, characterized by having more than two major parties, coalition cabinets and decentralized or federal political system.
Policy styles flow from the electoral system and the distribution of power.
Policies styles in a consensus democracy tend to be more towards diffusing power and encourages the formation of coalitions and the pursuit of consensus. On the other hand, a majoritarian democracy tend to be more top-down government, and centralized power.
88
Define sociological institutionalism (meso-level-theory)
Basic assumption(s): Institutions are broadly understood as formal and informal rules that are structuring for actors' perceptions and preferences
and thereby for public policies.
The logic of appropriateness states that individuals make their choices according to what they view as
socially valuable.
89
Define historical institutionalism and its basic assumption about how policies are influenced?
Basic assumption(s): policy change is structured by past choices and
will rarely be radical (critical juncture) but often incremental
(path dependence). Over time, incremental change may be extensive. History matters and will effect the choices going forward.
Catalyst of change: Changes in the environment.
Categorize welfare regimes into three groups: The anglo-saxo liberal model, the Scandinavian welfare model and the continental conservative model. It is highly unlikely that countries in Scandinavia who follow the Scandinavian welfare model, will suddenly give up the historically developed generous social democratic model and replace it with the anglo-saxo liberal model. There is in this manner a path dependence, to the historical context in a country.
90
Explain and compare how sociological institutionalism, classic institutionalism and historic institutionalism would explain the influence on institutions in a policy? (apply it to your own breif)
SI: Defines institutions very widely and argues that they shape actors perceptions of their preferences, which in turn, affects their behavior, so that I becomes based on the logic of appropriateness and or legitimacy.
CI: This perspective regards policy outcomes as exclusively the result of existing formal political institutions.
HI: Emphasizes the structuring impact of institutional lock-ins and path dependence. History matters and determine policies - there is a "lock-in" as it becomes more costly and difficult to take another path, as the result of the institutionally structured distribution og power between actors.
91
Explain discursive institutionalism and apply it to your policy breif
Institutional change is explained by the importance of
ideas and discourses in policy making.
* Institutional change is an endogenous process in which
ideas are power:
– Power through ideas (the capacity of actors to persuade
other actors to accept their views).
– Power over ideas (the imposition of ideas on actors).
– Power in ideas (the establishment of institutions imposing
constraints on what ideas can be considered).
92
Explain the concept of bounded rationality and rational actors?
1.) Assuming full rationality,
the actors choose solutions
that optimize their utility given
their preferences.
2.) Assuming bounded
rationality, the actors choose a
satisfactory solution due to limit information.
93
Strategic choice
What do the public and private actors want?
Public. Political parties: voters, office and policy.
Bureaucrats optimize: budgets (Niskanen 1971) or
offices (Dunleavy 1991).
Private. Interest groups: interests! Will depend on the: 1.) Organization 2.) topic and 3.) level of
competition (pluralistic or (neo) corporatist))
94
Explain Niskanens (1971) model of budget maximizing bureaucracy:
Bureaucrats will try to maximize their departments budget in order to increase their salary and prestige.
The more services its department supplies, the higher its budget will be.
95
Interest groups are viewed as making a vital contribution to policy-making process because they? (three reasons)
o Provide a more effective voice for citizens who are competing for resources
o They reduce the anxiety produced by feelings of powerlessness
o They provide an element of stability.
96
Give an example of the prisoners dilemma in relation to a policy
Example: The theory of regulatory competition in environmental policies represents an illustrative example of a prisoners dilemma. In brief, this theory argues that states have incentive to lower their environmental protection standards in order to attract mobile capital. The idea underlying this is that environmental protection standards cause costs to the industries. Assuming that governments are rational actors interested in optimizing their benefits the theory of regulatory competition predicts that there will be a continued lowering environmental regulation protection standards simply because the countries do not trust one another, which prevents them from timely collective action.
97
Explain rational choice institutionalism
Rational choice institutionalism is based on the logic of consequentialism: rational actors engage in strategic interactions using their resources to maximize their utilizes on the basis given, fixed and ordered interest.
The preferences are not affected by institutional factors and not subject to social construction.
98
Explain rational institutionalism
Rational choice institutionalism is based on the logic of consequentialism, meaning that rational actors engage in strategic interactions that are structured by institutional arrangements. The preferences are not affected by institutional factors and not subject to social construction.
Rational actors engage in strategic interactions using their resources to maximize their utilizes on the basis given, fixed and ordered interest
99
Explain which two dimension that determines policy styles?
o The first dimension relates to a governments apporach to problem solvinging, ranging from anticipatory/active to reactive.
o The second dimension is about governments relationship to other actors in the policy making process, characterized by their inclination either to reach concensus with organized groups or to impose decisions.
100
Who are the main actors in health policy?
Depending on the health system, the state is strongly invested in health policy (NHS)
Other actors:
‘Classical’ party politics (Left-Right)
Health Ministries
Societal actors (non-for-profit sickness funds)
Patient organisations
Private non-for profit interest organisations (for instance, supporting work regarding specific diseases)
Professional organisations
Pharmaceuticals
Private sector insurances
Intermediary companies purchasing medication
Ethical councils (conditions for providing treatment
101
What are the three main public policy dilemmas within health policies?
Effectiveness: Human capital, technology, infrastructure
Affordability: affordability for state or individuals. Ehere state is dominant, health care expenditure should be kept at bay, which is demanding in countries where old-age dependency is increasing
Access: citizenship, insurance (through work), private insurance
access also involves issues such as waiting time policy, access to specialists (GP or free), density of doctors per population.
102
Define the term public health?
Public health refers to large-scale initiatives to prevent diseases, such as vaccines or information campaigns (international, EU, national and regional/local levels of governance can be relevant here)
103
Are the any intergovernmental actors?
WHO:
Created as agency of UN after WW2. Excerpts from constitution of WHO:
‘The enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health is one of the fundamental rights of every human being without distinction of race, religion, political belief, economic or social condition’
‘The achievement of any State in the promotion and protection of health is of value to all’
‘The health of all peoples is fundamental to the attainment of peace and security and is dependent on the fullest co-operation of individuals and States’
‘Unequal development in different countries in the promotion of health and control of diseases, especially communicable disease, is a common danger’
International Level: World Health Organisation (WHO)
- WHO monitors outbreaks of dangerous diseases and viruses and advises governments on containment
- WHO has the authority to declare global pandemics
-WHO argued that travel across borders could not contain disease
-Updates advice regularly: test, isolate, face masks
104
Explain what it means when a social rights are commodified and de-commodified
Access to social rights can range from highly dependent on markets (workers’ income) – commodified – to fully provided by the state – de-commodified
Thus, health systems (access to health services) can be more or less ‘de-commodified’ (i.e. free from dependence on socio-economic status/income). In Denmark we have a highly de-commodified system.
105
Explain the three core dimensions that determines a healthcare system (Böhm et. al)
Regulatory, finance, service provision
Each of the three dimensions can be dominated by either the state, private actors or societal (insurance).
The mixture of the power and influence between these dimensions, determines the type of healthcare system.
106
Who are the three main actors in the healthcare system?
o State
o Societal
o Private actors
The central question is the extent of state control over the health care system.
107
What are the two core dimensions to look at in order to determine a healthcare system?
The delivery of services and their financing are core dimensions to be looked at, particularly with respect to the extent to which the state intervenes in healthcare and with respect to the public/private mix.
108
Explain the regulatory dimension
- The regulation dimension can be structured as the relation between financing agencies, providers, and (potential) beneficiaries.
- From this set of actors follow six objects of regulation, as illustrated in Fig. 1: coverage, the system of financing, the remuneration of providers, the access of providers to markets, the access of patients to providers, and the benefit package.
- The pertinent question for classifying the regulation dimension that thus arises is “who is in charge of regulating and controlling these relationships?”
- The state might be in control by hierarchical means, and societal actors may seek control through collective-bargaining.
Coverage: who is covered and for what in public and/or private health care systems (nation-state in all systems)
- System of financing: state, market (out-of pocket), intermediary bodies (agencies, funds)
- Remuneration of service providers
- Access of providers to health care market
- Access of patients to service providers
- Benefit package
109
Explain the financing dimension
- General taxation (typical in Universal-type welfare states)
- Insurance-based (typical in Bismarckian-type welfare states)
- Private insurance (closest is the US/Liberal welfare state)
- Tax revenues reflex state financing.
- One of the main consequences is that tax financing does not result in any direct entitlements to health services.
- On the hand in PHS private spending is related to health conditions.
- Social insurance reflects the societal elements, as financing is organized via parafiscal levies channeled into funds which the government has not direct acces
110
Explain the service provision dimension
The degree of mix between public and private providers of the service.
111
Define the. 5 types of health care systems?
1. The National Health Service: State control all three dimensions; regulatory, finance and service provision
2. The National Health Insurance: Shares the features of the national health system, but relies on for-profit providers instead of state provision. While the state is responsible for regulating the relation between providers, payers and patients, there is some leeway for patients to choose physicians or hospitals.
3. The Social Health Insurance: Is the only plausible health care system type whose regulatory dimensions is dominated by societal actors. Example: Germany. The Social Health Insurance type represents a dominant role of societal actors in healthcare regulation and financing, whereas services are mainly delivered by private for-profit providers.
4. The Etatist Social Health Insurance: It is a mixture of state regulation, societal financing and private provision. Example: Belgium and France.
5. Private Health System: Private actors playing the dominate role in all three dimensions (regulatory, financing and provision). Example is the USA. Type The core features of a Private Health System are coordination by market actors, private financing sources, and for-profit providers.
112
Explain the core elements and core challenges in a national health system
National health system:
- Regulation, financing and provision are governed by State
- NHS-type, ‘command-and-control’
- Nordic countries and UK ‘purest’ type, i.e hospital beds 90% public, vs. 66-75% in Spain& Portugal
- Historical development of health care in Nordic countries related to general welfare expansion
- Reflects Social democratic values of universal coverage (tax-financed), equal access to service and benefits (i.e. highly decommodified), belief in
efficiency of public services
- In UK: post-WW2 development of health care related to values of national solidarity (and Beveridgean focus on health as investment in
productivity)
- Spain and Portugal: social movements contributed to shaping health systems following end of dicatorships (1980s)
- Scandinavian political systems: consensus-based (providers do not have veto power)
- State control in regulation and financing in NHS systems strongly rooted
- Major health services (cancer, heart, etc) provided by public health system (in-patient care)
- Other complementary issues can be covered by insurance (publicly regulated), including psychology, physiotherapy, dental care (out-patient
treatment and care)
- Challenges: maintaining quality considering aging populations/old-age dependency ratio, costly technology, costly treatments, effectiveness
across major health issues, waiting time
o Recently, in DK, doctors concerned about working conditions (stress and less patient time)
o In most NHS countries - Nurses concerned about wages and working conditions, especially following the pandemic
o In Spain - the system has characteristics of being quasi-federal, i.e. level of autonomous communities
- Trend: privatization at the margins, which is more pronounced in Spain, Portugal, UK
113
Explain the core elements and main challenges in a National Health insurance system
- Tax-financing with complementary private financing
- Australia & Canada: 33% private financing
- Regulation of relationship between providers, payers, patient
- Private service provision (but hospital beds 60-80% public)
- Exclusively private service provision in outpatient care (including dental care)
- To some degree, patients can choose physicians or hospitals
- Political systems involving more veto players; Australia, Canada and Italy federations
- In these countries, major reforms were implemented by centrist or conservative government (ideology that public services are inefficient and of poor quality, preference for private actors) private’ covers private insurance, and out-of-pocket payments
- Challenges: Inequality in health dependent on resources & regulation of private actor, old-age dependency is a major financial burden
114
Explain the core elements and main challenges in a Social health system
Societal actors (sickness funds, health insurance funds) in health care regulation and financing
* Service delivery private for-profit providers
* Austria, Germany, Lux, Switzerland
Fragmented political systems, strong interest groups (including doctors)
* Insurance based on occupational status (Bismarckian logic)
* In period of welfare expansion, service was expanded to cover an increasingly broad group of citizens
* Challenges: multitude of actors makes it difficult to harmonise, especially for cost containment, but also for optimization of
treatments, decisions on technological advances.
* Trend: increasing role of state in regulating activity of the funds (partly due to less capacity of funds to save money)
115
Explain the core elements and core challenges of a private health system
* Coordination by market actors, private financing, private sector for profit providers
* Example: US
* Historical and political context: weak unions, strong lobbying by associations of doctors and private insurances
* Challenge: regulation of quality, regulation of private insurance, major challenge with health inequalities (very apparent with corona!), problem of capacity in case of major public health problem (i.eCOVID-19 pandenmic), maintaining quality and providing coverage for poorer segments of population
* Trend: Increasing collectivisation of risk, ca. 46% overall health funding, more public funding and stronger state regulation (some of this rolled back with Trump)
116
Explain the core elements and main challenges in a Etatist social health system
* Mixed healthcare type
* State provides overall regulatory framework
* Financing organised by societal actors (sickness funds, but few major actors)
* Provision of health by private sector actors
(1) Former communist countries: 60% insurance financed, but 40% private out-of-pocket contribution
* State set regulatory framework, as post-communist societal actors did not have strong capabilities
* Liberalization post-1991 made private actors responsible for service provision
* State hospitals have incrementally become less important, but are still central in most former communist countries
117
What kind of health system do we have in Denmark?
- In Denmark we have a National Health System, where all three dimensions – regulatory, financing and service provision is done by the state.
- Scandinavian political systems: consensus-based (providers do not have veto power)
- The implementation of the Scandinavian NHS ca be interpreted as part of the general welfare state expansion and transformation into a social democratic welfare regime in the post war economic boom.
- Social democratic governments and the low veto potential of providers seem to be necessary requirements for the establishment of an NHS and state dominance respectively in all dimensions of the healthcare system.
- Future developments: there is a tendency to more private actors in service provision.
- Health care systems that emerged post-WW2 are relatively stable (path-dependent), but there are changes, i.e. hybridization
- Reflects Social democratic values of universal coverage (tax-financed), equal access to service and benefits (i.e. highly decommodified), belief in
efficiency of public services
118
What is the main goal of universal health care system?
- Equal access to services
- Universal coverage
119
Who are the actors in the field of labour market regulation?
Governments, social partners, firms, unions.
120
Explain some global trends & crises impacting wage inequality
- feminisation of labour markets
- industrial restructuring (growth in services industry
- internationalisation of production
- automation & digitalisation
- recessions
- covid pandemic & wars
121
What are typical instruments for addressing wage inequality?
- Many policies can address low wages: redistributive through taxes and transfers, in-work benefits, family policy, minimum wage legislation
122
Who are the actors in the field of labour market regulation?
- Governments and social partners (trade unions) are important actors in laboiur market policy.
- Variation is important across countries as it depends on the political system: coordinated market economy or a liberal market economy.
- Crucial role of policy design: policies with the same name can have very different
intentions, design features and outcomes (also contingent on other existant
policies
- Lack of compliance can severely undermine effectiveness of public policies: role
for labour authorities/inspectorates, trade unions & works councils.
123
What is a organized decentralized coordinated system?
Levels of barganing:
- Firm (Decentralized)
- Sectoral (Denmark – organized decentralised)
- National (centralization)
Governance:
Degree of co-ordination
- No co-ordination (poorly enforced and/or low quality of the labour relations)
- Coordination (enforced and/or high quality of labour relations)
Denmark has a coordinated decentralized system -
124
How do organized decentralized coordinated system provide inclusiveness and flexibility?
- Reaching balance between inclusiveness (covering a large share of workers
and companies) and flexibility (some decentralization for firms to adjust wages)
- DK, SE, NO: sector level agreements set common standards (co-ordination
element) but allow flexibility to firms to adapt (decentralization)
- Different options to allow flexibility for firms:
* minimum standards leaving actual level of wages and working conditions to
company agreements;
* corridor agreements: minimum and maximum boundaries;
* default agreement only applies if no agreement is reached at firm-level but social partners at local level can agree to go below default agreement to take
into account varying productivity levels across firms within a sector
125
Why do actor constellations and power configurations of actors vary across sectors and/or countries and what does this imply for policy making and outcomes?
It matters because collective agreements determine wage levels and other working conditions (working-time, leave arrangements, training, employment, protection and health safety provision) – in some sectors where the power among the configurations actors are high (3F), they might imply a bigger power to influence policy making in the area.
Collective bargaining thus relevant for wide set of labour market policy objectives including wage equality, working-time flexibility, job security and productivity
- The way collective bargaining influences labour market performance
depends on the structure of labour markets and the characteristics of the collective bargaining system
- Strong variation in trade union density (TU) and collective bargaining
coverage across countries & strong decline in TU membership and to a
lesser degree collective bargaining coverage since mid-1980s
126
What are the basic questions of budgeting?
- All policies depend on money, to accomplish any or all of its task. For this reason the question of budget is determining a unit for the financial room for future policies.
- Getting more money is one way to demonstrate importance but getting less can be used to signal restraint.
- With increasing pressures on governments both to provide services and to contain or reduce its costs, the budgetary process has become a crucial political battleground.
127
What is the difference between macro and micro allocation?
- Macro-allocation: At its most fundamental budgeting is the allocation of resources, and the first form of allocation that must be considered is the allocation between the public and private sectors of the economy.
- The first problem a government encounters when attempting to control the size of its public sector is that public expenditure is not as easy to control due to automatic changes and problems with steering the economy.
- more money or signal restraint?
- how big a share of the economy should be public?
- why is it so difficult to control budgets?
Micro-allocation:
- Choices must be made among the huge number of competing programs in government.
- The compartmentalization of the budget process constitutes a threat to rational allocation.
- It is only in the financial ministry or in the government’s cabinet meeting, where the entire budget is open to determination, that any detailed
considerations of competing priorities can be made.
128
What is incremental budgeting?
* Despite the special conditions under which incrementalism is argued to arise, it has become a prevailing budgetary process for most countries.
* The nature of incrementalism
o Incrementalism is both a descriptive and a prescriptive
concept. Descriptively, it refers to observed patterns of
change in budgets in a stable and predictable fashion.
o Prescriptively, this is regarded positively by incrementalists. It makes planning simpler and reduces decision-making costs in the legislature.
129
Why are there pressures towards incrementalism in budgeting?
- Two fundamental factors seem to pressure towards incrementalism:
- 1) The sheer magnitude of the process itself – the average legislator will concentrate time and effort on items of magnitude he or she can comprehend. Det kan være svært at begribe og forstår.
- 2) The sequential and repetitive nature of budgeting. Creates strong incentives to be cautious and play the confidence game.
- Another factor is that public expenditures are automated.
130
Critiques of incrementalism?
* Descriptively, function of the level of aggregation: the larger the program/organization, the more incremental the outcomes appear.
* Provides no mechanism for explaining changes in those percentage over time, nor for explaining differences in the percentage increases agreed each year.
* Prescriptively, it has been argued that the incrementalist approach to decision-making tends to institutionalize the status quo.
131
What are pressures that produce change?
- Change in the partisan control of government
- Politicians need to be perceived to be doing something
132
What budgetary approaches are there to increase efficacy?
Program budgeting, Zero-base budgeting, Management by objectives, The public expenditure survey,
Bulk budgeting.
133
Explain program budgeting
Program budgeting
- PPBS (planning, programming, budget, system)
- Challenge: It requires an abundance of information and analytic ability, as well as some predictability of the revenues and expenditures of government.
- Program budgeting is also a budgeting system for relatively centralized and
elite-dominated political systems.
- It allocates resources to programs rather than line items – strong legislature like to be able to allocate resource to organizations, so it is not favoured by legislatures.
- It is to divorce from the political realities of most governments.
134
Explain zero-base budgeting
Zero-base budgeting:
- The most fundamental idea is that the agencies should have to justify its entire budget each year.
- This is somewhat impractical and therefore, ZBB forces each budget unit to develop contingencies for several possible levels of funding.
- The most basic level of appropriations is the “survival package,” which is the minimal level of funding needed.
- Organizations do not like outsiders to know what the minimum amount of funding they need to survive really is. Moreover, it opens up for political battles every year
135
Explain Management by objectives
Management by objectives:
- The basic concept is that managers should establish clear objectives and develop plans for their realization.
- Problem that besets MBO, PPBS, or any system attempting to install “rational” policy analysis is that operational indicators must be developed for
performance evaluation to be effective.
- It runs counter to many of the established practices of government. Perhaps most important, MBO forces decisions upward toward the chief executive
136
Explain The Public expenditure survey
- It was established in the UK to make better expenditures, regardless of the degree of fiscal restraint required.
- It involves forecast of expenditure requirements for all program, as well as medium-term forecast of the balance of public expenditure with the rest of the economy.
137
Explain bulk budgeting
Bulk budgeting:
- Instead of receiving funds in the conventional input categories such as personnel or equipment, they are allocated a lump sum and told to get on with their job.
- This budgeting system is assumed to permit program managers greater flexibility in achieving their goals, and especially in responding to changing circumstances.
- The concept of bulk budgeting is now being spread widely, under the rubric of “framework” budgeting
138
What are the general problems of budgeting?
1. Intergovernmental budget control: The coordination of
expenditure policies across levels of government. Sub-national levels may have sufficient control to prevent the development of a coordinated fiscal policy.
2. Short time horizon of budgeting, especially in a modern world of large-scale capital investments.
3. The allocation of capital resources in the society are equally important but poses many challenges (Sbragia, 2000).
4. Coordination of taxation: it is difficult to know how much to spend without knowing how much revenue will accrue, and it is difficult to tax without knowing the
amount of spending intended. Despite the close connection of these two elements of the public budget, decisions are frequently made by quite independent
processes.
5. Off budget operations: which implies keeping certain types of funds separate from the rest of the government, but this can be difficult in reality
139
Why is there a need for expertise in policy-making?
Increased complexity – many wicked problems.
Specialization: policy and regulation
Uncertainty
140
How can policy-makers benefit from expertise/experts?
- State-of-the-art insights for long- and short-term issues
- Incorporation of novel ideas and techniques
- Possible interests: selected evidence and expertise, to counter-balance or steer
- Stakeholder motivations should be considered
141
What is expertise?
- Specialized knowledge
- State-of-the-art insights for long- and short-term issues
- Incorporation of novel ideas and techniques
- Possible interests: selected evidence and expertise, to counter-balance or steer
- Stakeholder motivations should be considered
142
Why is there a need for expertise in policy-making?
- Increased complexity – many wicked problems.
- Specialization: policy and regulation
- Uncertainty
Decision-makers need expertise to understand the challenges (1) and formulate
the appropriate responses (2).
143
What is expertise?
- Specialized knowledge
- State-of-the-art insights for long- and short-term issues
- Incorporation of novel ideas and techniques
- Possible interests: selected evidence and expertise, to counter-balance or steer
- Stakeholder motivations should be considered
144
How can policy-makers benefit from expertise/experts?
- State-of-the-art insights for long- and short-term issues
- Incorporation of novel ideas and techniques
- Possible interests: selected evidence and expertise, to counter-balance or steer
- Stakeholder motivations should be considered
145
When is evidence needed?
1. Lack of information within policy-making
2. Salience and relevance: all possibly impacted stakeholders (arbitrate)
146
What channels for expertise are there?
Advisory bodies (executive)
* Appointed and funded by government, mixed expertise
* Various panels, committees and task forces
* Temporary or permanent status
External bodies
* Independent actors
* Universities, research institutes, think thanks and consultancy firms
147
Other actors – with similar channels as experts?
Organized interests and private companies
* Advocate and/or represent particular interests and groups
* However, can use same avenues to communicate to decision-makers
* Unequal access and bias vs. cheap expertise
Specific avenues with more or less direct influence
* Lobbying
* Endorsement and contributions
148
Why could you argue against using expertise in policy making?
Mandate, mandate, mandate...
* Elected decision-makers carry out a mandate and can be held responsible
Lack of inclusion...
* Reduced equality
* Reduced participatory engagement
149
Why do the policy makers welcome firm and interest group to give input to the policy-making process?
Politicians and bureaucrats generally welcome inputs from interest groups and relevant firms because they can contribute with relevant information and knowledge, which helps inform policy options and choices. The effect and knowledge are typically better if the actors had been a part of the process (producers advising)
150
What are the three supranational institutions in the EU?
The commission, the court of justice and the European parliament.
151
What is the most politicized division in policy making in the EU?
The most politicized is the the division between net-contributors and net-beneficiaries in the EU budget
152
Explain the difference between high and low politics?
High politics: Security and foreign affairs - normally societal actors do not contribute actively to these issues. Heads of governments are predominate.
Low politics: Environmental politics - societal actors engage more actively.
It is a problem that the political issues that are non-military is under this hierarchy. It is also a dynamic concept - a policy area like energy might evolve into a high policy area due to the importance of energy as critical infrastructure.
153
Why is there a growing interest for policy making beyond the nation state?
* Since the 1990s, there has been a growing shift in scholarly attention from the national to the international and global level of policy-making.
* The main driver is globalization – i.e. intensification of interdependence between states in various policy areas
* Public policies beyond the nation state refer to the formulation and implementation of policies via international organizations & regimes (incl. the EU).
* Globalization: The intensified interdependences across states.
* The scope of the underlying problem exceeds the nation state territorially and bounded regulatory structures and restriction on national policy option as a result of economic interdependencies.
154
Why do national state engage in the development of public policies beyond the nation state?
Often it is due to the existence of transnational problems that cannot be effectively addressed by the unilateral action of an individual state. Example: climate change
155
What are the central institutions and actors in EU policy-making?
(explain their role, mandate and function)
- The EU operates through a system of supranational institutions and intergovernmentally made decisions negotiated by member states.
o The Council of the EU
o The European Council
o The European parliament
o The Commission
o And the court of justice
- The Council of the EU:
o It is EU legislative body – it meets regulation in ten different formations depending on the topic agenda e.g. agriculture. Every meeting is attended by one minister from each member state.
- The European Council:
o Consist of heads of state governments of the member states, together with its appointed president.
o This body have no legislative function but decides on the political direction for EU going forward.
- The European parliament:
o Exercises democratic supervision over the commission.
o The member of the parliaments is directly elected.
o The parliament is organized into parties.
- The Commission:
o The commission is composed of one commissioner form each state appointed for a five-year period.
o It holds constitutive power in agenda-setting, given its exclusive rights of formally initiating policy proposals.
o On the other hand, it acts as the guarding of efficiency, making sure that the member state implements the policies decides by the EU.
156
What is the definition of an emerging market?
- There is no official definition of an emerging market.
- Typically, a framework classifies merging markets on:
o Economic development.
o Size and liquidity
o Market assessment.
Another framework looks at the following dimensions:
o Systemic presence: The size of the country’s economy, its population, and its share of exports in global trade.
o Market access: The share of a countries external debt in global external debt.
o Income level: A country’s GDP per capita in nominal US dollars.
157
Which countries is typically classified as an emerging market?
- Often, BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa)
... but much more than those: Malaysia, Thailand, Chile, Colombia, etch.
- .. and developing (or ‘frontier’) economies in Africa (Rwanda,
Ethiopia, Nigeria, Botswana etc.)
158
Explain the concept of 'stuck in the middle'
”Today’s middle-income countries are caught in a developmental nutcracker unable to
compete with low-income (li), low-wage economies in manufactured exports and unable
to compete with advanced economies in high-skill innovations.” (Doner & Schneider
2016, 609)
159
What are the challenges in the definition of emerging markets?
* Contested (and loose) definitions – and yet investors use them
* When and why do countries ‘graduate’ from emerging market status?
* How and why does a country become – or stop being – an emerging market?
160
What are some of the main issues in emerging market?
Income and Poverty
Climate and sustainable development
Corruption
Growth that is ‘greener’ and
sustainable?
Growth that is more inclusive?
