Political and governmental change, 1945-89 Flashcards
(268 cards)
1
Q
When did Germany suffer a total defeat in WW2?
A
1945
2
Q
For what reasons did Germany suffer defeat in WW2?
A
- the country had become engaged in a conflict for which it was not fully prepared
- the alliance with Mussolini proved to be of little benefit
- Germany failed to defeat the Soviet Union
- the USA gave a considerable amount of money and manpower to the Allies when it entered the war
3
Q
Following its surrender in May 1945, what happened to Germany?
A
It ceased to exist as an independent country, and the central government had broken down.
4
Q
Give examples of Nazi leaders who had committed suicide.
A
Hitler and Goebbels, while others had fled or been captured and arrested.
5
Q
Who was Germany under the administration (governance) of?
A
The Allies (America, Britain, France and the Soviet Union).
6
Q
When was the Potsdam Conference?
A
July - August 1945
7
Q
What did the Allies agree at the Potsdam Conference?
A
To divide Germany into four “zones of occupation” run by the four countries. The capital of Germany was Berlin in the Soviet zone, but was also divided into four zones. It was agreed the the division of Germany was to be temporary and the Allies would soon negotiate a final settlement for the whole of Germany.
8
Q
What was the Allied Control Council (ACC)?
A
Set up as a governing body to oversee all four “zones of occupation” and exercise overall joint authority over the country to make decisions across the zones. This was in order to keep Germany “intact” for re-unification.
9
Q
When were political parties re-established in Germany from?
A
June 1945, and many were based in Berlin to allow for communication across the four zones.
10
Q
Germany was divided into four occupied zones, which countries ran each zone?
A
• Great Britain in the northwest
• France in the southwest
• USA in the south
• Soviet Union in the east
11
Q
After WW2: Which country ran Berlin?
A
Soviet Union
12
Q
What were the economic problems Germany faced after the war?
A
- major German cities had been reduced to rubble because of British, American, and Soviet bomb campaigns
- many people in need of housing
- food shortages were a severe problem
- much of Germany’s infrastructure (e.g bridges, railways, gas and water facilities) and industries were damaged, or broken down and the nation was in huge debt.
13
Q
After WW2: What percentage of housing had been completely destroyed?
A
20%
and a further 30% badly damaged. Many were in need of temporary accommodation.
14
Q
After WW2: What did food consumption per day drop to?
A
Between 950 and 1150 calories, as opposed to recommended 2000 per day.
15
Q
Describe political and economic situation in Germany after the Second World War?
A
• very precarious politically
• lots of people indoctrinated by Nazi ideology/still favoured Nazis
• chaos and destruction
• food and housing shortages
• struggle between allies for Berlin
• infrastructure completely destroyed
16
Q
What happened as relations between USSR and West worsened?
A
Developed in Cold War
17
Q
As Cold War tensions developed, what became increasingly evident?
A
That the division between the eastern communist and western non-communist sections of Germany and Berlin would become permanent.
18
Q
After the Second World War, what ‘common enemy’ that had existed between the capitalist nations and the communist USSR had disappeared?
A
Nazi Germany
19
Q
Why did the East and West become increasingly suspicious of each other in the lead up to permanent separation?
A
- The development of nuclear weaponry
- The expansion of Soviet influence across eastern Europe.
- America’s more aggressive policy of “containment” (a commitment to preventing the spread of communism).
20
Q
Steps to permanent separation: By 1948, what countries had become communist states?
A
All eastern European countries, except Greece, had become communist states e.g Yugoslavia, Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary and Poland
21
Q
Steps to permanent separation: In May 1946, what did the US do?
A
Disallowed reparation payments from West Germany to be given to the Soviet Union. Tensions were high, America did not want to associate with the Soviet Union/East Germany.
22
Q
Steps to permanent separation: When did USA disallow reparations from West Germany to be given to Soviet Union?
A
May 1946
23
Q
Steps to permanent separation: What was the results of the October 1946 election in Berlin?
A
The communists won in the Soviet zone (the KPD and SPD parties had joined to form one party), but did very badly in all other zones (where both political parties were still separate). Shows they had dominance in some parts of Germany, so could work with this.
24
Q
Steps to permanent separation: March 20th 1947
A
The USSR left the Allied Control Council, making it clear they were not interested in re-unification.
25
Steps to permanent separation: When did the USSR leave the Allied Control Council?
March 1947.
26
Steps to permanent separation: May 1947
America and Britain combined their 'zones of occupation', creating Bizonia. Shows first signs of separation.
27
Steps to permanent separation: When did Britain and America create Bizonia?
May 1947
28
Steps to permanent separation: What did America introduce from 1948?
America introduced the Marshall Plan and began issuing economic aid to European countries, including Germany's western 'zones of occupation, to re-boost the European economy and to prevent communism from taking hold in western Europe. Stalin disallowed eastern European countries from receiving this aid.
29
Steps to permanent separation: What was the Marshall Plan?
US-sponsored initiative designed to rehabilitate the economies of 17 western and southern European countries in order to create stable conditions in which democratic institutions could survive.
30
Steps to permanent separation: What happened in June 1948?
Bizonia introduced a new currency, the Deutschmark, to the western-controlled zones of Germany to help develop the economy.
31
Steps to permanent separation: How did Stalin respond to the creation of the Deutschmark?
By blockading Berlin, closing transport and communication links to the city (e.g. roads; railways).
32
Steps to permanent separation: How did America respond to the Berlin blockade?
By airlifting supplies into the western zones, which continued for 11 months until Stalin lifted the blockade in May 1949.
33
Steps to permanent separation: When did Stalin lift the Berlin blockade?
May 1949 (started in June 1948)
34
Steps to permanent separation: When did France join Bizonia, creating Trizonia?
22nd May 1949
35
Steps to permanent separation: What was set up in September 1948?
A Parliamentary Council - to put together a new constitution for a new country not including the Soviet 'zone of occupation': West Germany.
36
Steps to permanent separation: What happened on the 22nd May 1949?
The three 'zones of occupation' of Britain, the USA and France formally became one: the Federal Republic of Germany, otherwise known as West Germany.
37
Steps to permanent separation: What happened on the 7th October 1949?
The German Democratic Republic (East Germany) was officially announced as a new nation.
38
What did the FRG and GDR being announced mean for Germany?
These actions marked the end of the possiblity of a reunified Germany after the Second World war. For the next 41 years, East and West Germany served as symbols of the divided world, and of the Cold War animosities between the Soviet Union and the United States.
39
Evidence that western nations were responsible for the increase in Cold War tensions between 1945-49 and the division of Germany into East and West?
* America had an aggressive policy of "containment" - preventing the spread of communism - angering USSR.
* US disallowed reparation payments from West Germany to be given to the Soviets.
* America and Britain created Bizonia - excluding USSR.
* America introduced Marshall Plan.
* Isolating USSR from economic relief creates an environment of economic competition.
* 1948 Parliamentary Council not including Soviets.
40
Evidence that USSR was responsible for the increase in Cold War tensions between 1945-49 and the division of Germany into East and West?
* Isolation and breakdown of communication - leaving the ACC, disallowing Eastern countries from receiving Marshall Aid.
* Military responses - blockading Berlin.
* Soviet expansion in Eastern European countries - scares the west.
41
What did the post-war constitution of the FRG attempt to deal with?
The weaknesses of the previous democratic institutions, while limiting political extremism.
42
What was de-nazification?
An Allied initiative to rid German and Austrian society, culture, press, economy, judiciary, and politics of the Nazi ideology following the Second World War. There was a mass internment of former Nazis who had political responsibilities and leadership roles.
43
What did the Allies want to do with the Nazis but what was the problem?
Wanted to remove Nazis from all positions in society, but it proved to be impracticable. Therefore in 1946 they decided to deal with de-Nazification on a case-by-case basis. Penalties were harsh and resulted in people playing down their Nazi past.
44
Evidence that de-Nazification was a success
* The Allies forced thousands of Germans to visit opened concentration camps and assist with burials to confront their guilt.
* The Allies banned all ex-Nazis from all leading positions of power. By late 1946, nearly 250,000 ex-Nazis were arrested and held in prison.
* The major focus of de-Nazification was the Nuremberg trials - an international court which presided over the war crimes of Nazis. At the first trial, 10 Nazis were sentenced to death and Goering committed suicide the night before.
* Symbols of Nazi rule were destroyed such as the Swastika at the Nuremberg stadium.
45
What did the Allies force Germans to do during de-Nazification?
To visit opened concentration camps and assist with burials to confront their guilt.
46
What did Allies ban all ex-Nazis from? (de-Nazification)
Leading positions of power
47
By late 1946, how many ex-Nazis had been imprisoned and taken to prison?
Nearly 250,000
48
What were the Nuremberg trials?
A series of trials carried out in Nuremberg, Germany, between 1945 and 1946. The defendants, who included Nazi Party officials and high-ranking military officers along with German industrialists, lawyers and doctors, were indicted on such charges as crimes against peace and crimes against humanity.
49
How many Nazis were sentenced to death in the first Nuremberg trial?
10
50
Who committed suicide following the International Military Tribunal in Nuremberg?
Hermann Göring
51
During the process of de-Nazification, what was destroyed?
Symbols of Nazi rule, such as the Swastika at the Nuremberg stadium.
52
Evidence that de-Nazification was a failure
* There were many loop holes so that some hard-line Nazis escaped justice. Most Nazis were given amnesties after 1951.
* Many Nazis escaped punishment because they were useful in an anti-Communist role.
* Germans could produce "character references" in their defence, many of which could be brought on the black market.
* Only 1.3% of Germans in the British zone were punished. In the French zone it was 2.6%. Americans were more zealous in prosecuting.
* The size of the task was too much for the Allies who were understaffed. They increasingly handed judgements over to local German authorities.
* After 1948, the Allies' interest moved away from de-Nazification and towards the Cold War. The Allies became more concerned about "containing" Communism.
* Too many less important Nazis were caught and punished while leading Nazis used their connections to escape justice. This created resentment and undermined the process.
* By 1951, the de-Nazification process was called to a halt and the Allies did not oppose the move.
53
Why did many key Nazis able to scape punishment?
- Because they were useful in anti-communist roles.
- Loop holes so even hard-line Nazis could escape justice.
- Too many less important Nazis were caught while key Nazis used their connections to escape justice.
54
What were most Nazis given after 1951?
Amnesties - failure of de-Nazification
55
What could Germans produce in their defence? (de-Nazification)
Character references - which could be bought on the black market
56
What percentage of Nazis in the British and French zones were punished?
Only 1.3% in the British Zone
2.6% the French Zone
57
Which ally was most zealous in their persecution of Nazis during de-Nazification?
America
58
What was the result of de-Nazification being too much for Allies and them being understaffed?
They increasingly handed judgements over to local German authorities.
59
What did the Allies' interest move to alter 1948? (from de-Nazification)
The Cold War. Became more concerned about containing communism.
60
What created resentment and undermined the de-Nazification process?
Too many less important Nazis were caught and leading Nazis escaped using their connections.
61
When was the denazification process called to a halt and how did the Allies respond?
1951 - Adenauer brought the policy to an end and the allies did not oppose this move.
FAILURE
62
When the FRG was created, where was the its centre of government?
Bonn (which became the capital of the FRG)
63
How was Germany governed after WW2?
At the Potsdam Conference, it was agreed that Germany (+Berlin) was divided into four zones of occupation (administered by the USA, USSR, Britain and France). The Allies set up the ACC to make decisions across the four zones.
64
What was the Basic Law?
The constitution of West Germany established in 1949. It was to be temporary until there was a united Germany.
65
Was the Basic Law supposed to be temporary or permanent?
Temporary - until Germany was reunited.
66
When was the Basic Law created?
May 23rd 1949
A Parliamentary Council was set up September 1st 1948 to draw up a contemporary constitution. The FRG announced this constitution - the Basic Law - in May 1949.
67
What did the FRG refuse to recognise?
The communist GDR and insisted it spoke for the whole of Germany.
68
In 1949, was the FRG fully independent? Why?
Not fully independent as it was still under the Occupation Statute so the USA had the power to veto laws and foreign policy.
69
What was the Basic Law designed to ensure?
That the FRG remained democratic and stable and that it avoided the weaknesses of the Weimar Republic by ensuring that political extremism could not re-emerge.
70
When did the first Federal elections take place?
August 1949
71
When was the FRG formed?
22nd May 1949
72
After the first Federal election in August 1949, who won? How many seats?
The CDU/CSU emerged with a narrow victory, gaining 139 seats compared to the SPD's 131 seats.
73
Who became the first chancellor of the FRG and post-war Germany?
Konrad Adenauer of the CDU in 1949
74
What was Adenauer's first challenge?
To establish a stable democracy and to gather as much control as possible from the Allied authorities.
75
Identify the main political parties of the FRG
* Left-wing: KPD (German Communist Party) and SPD (Social Democratic Party)
* Liberal: FDP (Free Democratic Party)
* Right-wing: CDU/CSU (Christian Democratic Union/Christian Social Union)
76
CDU/CSU
Christian Democratic Union/Christian Social Union - centre right party. Conservative. Led by Adenauer.
77
SPD
Social Democratic Party - around in Weimar government. Centre left party.
78
FDP
Free Democratic Party - quite a liberal party. Founded in 1948 by members of former liberal political parties which existed in Germany before World War II.
79
What was different about the political parties in FRG compared to Weimar?
Unlike Weimar, there's only 3 main parties, creating more stability.
80
Similarities in the system of government between FRG and Weimar
* Chancellor appointed by President
* Use proportional representation
* Democratic
* Power invested in the people
* Weimar constitution and Basic Law both upheld freedom of speech.
* Coalition governments (but stronger in FRG)
* Both federal states - Lander kept power over regional issues.
* Both had constitutions that upheld freedom of expression and democratic principles.
81
Differences in the system of government between FRG and Weimar
* Parties had to gain 5% of the vote before they represented (FRG)
* President - Weimar: had exclusive power, could dismiss Chancellor, Reichstag, pass emergency laws - FRG: limited power and mainly ceremonial (like the UK King)
* Chancellor - Weimar: easily removed by Reichstag or President. Weak position. FRG: strong positions. Could only be removed by vote "constructive vote of no confidence"
* Coalition governments made up of less parties in the FRG as smaller extremist parties were banned.
* ACC retain veto on German law in FRG.
* FRG more emphasis on individual human rights.
* Accused of being a "chancellor democracy in FRG"
* Adenauer worked to limit freedom of speech to promote political stability.
Heads of state being reversed and electoral system more representative in FRG.
82
What were the main feature of the Basic law?
* Equal rights to all citizens, regardless of sex, race, political views or religion.
* Free speech, the freedom to form unions or other groups, free assembly and no censorship.
* A state education for al.
* Article 20: The FRG is a democratic and social federal state. State authority is derived from the people and shall be exercised by the people through elections and other votes.
* Article 21: Political parties must conform to democratic principles. Parties which seek to undermine or abolish the democratic order or endanger the existence of the FRG shall be deemed unconstitutional and abolished.
83
What did Article 20 of the Basic Law state?
The FRG is a democratic and social federal state. State authority is derived from the people and shall be exercised by the people through elections and other votes.
84
What did Article 21 of the Basic Law state?
Political parties must conform to democratic principles. Parties which seek to undermine or abolish the democratic order or endanger the existence of the FRG shall be deemed unconstitutional and abolished.
85
When was Germany permanently divided between West and East?
The Federal Republic of Germany was formally established in May 1949. The German Democratic Republic (East Germany) was formally established in October 1949.
86
What was the role of the President in the FRG?
MAINLY CEREMONIAL POWERS
The President was not directly elected but chosen by a representative Federal Convention for a maximum of two five-year terms. This prevented an anti-democratic leader.
The powers of President were limited, largely formal and symbolic, unlike Weimar.
87
What was the role of the Chancellor in the FRG?
Head of government and most powerful politician.
* The Chancellor was appointed by the President, but needed parliamentary approval from the Bundestag.
* Usually head of the largest party in the Bundestag.
* The Chancellor could not be dismissed unless a new Chancellor was voted in, preventing the President from appointing and dismissing a
Chancellor at will.
* The Chancellor had to have parliamentary support. If not, new elections.
Unlike Weimar.
88
What was the Parliament in FRG?
The Bundestag - approved the Chancellor and passed the laws of the country. Elected by universal suffrage. Half of the seats allocated by proportional representation and other half on a first past the post system. Elections every 4 YEARS.
The Bundesrat helped formed the laws and was made up of representatives from the Lander. COULD VETO BUNDESTAG.
89
How often were elections for the Bundestag?
Every 4 years
90
What could the Bundesrat do?
Veto the Bundestag.
91
Describe the electoral system of the FRG
* 'Representative' democracy - popular participation was limited.
* Political parties could not be banned unless their aims were un-democratic.
* The Bundestag was elected through a combination of proportional representation and first past the post.
* Parties had to gain5% of the vote before they were represented - stopping extreme parties from taking power. Weimar - anyone could get the vote.
* Gradually, the number of small parties in the FRG declined.
92
How was the Bundestag elected?
Through a combination of proportional representation and first past the post.
93
What percentage of votes did parties have to gain before they were represented?
5%
94
New name for the Reichstag?
The Bundestag
95
How was the President in the FRG elected?
Elected by the Federal Convention
96
How was the Chancellor dismissed in the FRG?
Vote of no confidence if a new government was ready and waiting - no longer dismissed by President.
97
Describe West Germany in the decades after WW2
Developed into a peaceful, prosperous and mainly stable nation, with a Western-oriented, pro-US foreign policy. Germany became a member of NATO and enjoyed substantial economic development (the Wirtschaftswunder, or economic miracle) which produced high living standards.
Politics in the era until the mid-1960s was dominated by Chancellor Konrad Adenauer, the first elected leader of post-war Germany, and his CDU party.
98
What did the Basic Law see restored to Germany?
It saw the restoration of democracy to Germany.
99
What did the Allies retain over Germany?
A veto on German law, and the new state was not free to determine its foreign policy.
100
Who made up the Federal Convention? (that appointed the President in the FRG)
Half Bundestag members and half members of local state parliaments.
101
Describe Bundesrat in FRG (who was made up of and what could it do)
Made up of members of local state parliaments (Lander) and had a veto over legislation passed by the Bundestag.
102
What did a Federal Constitutional Court do?
A Federal Constitutional Court could rule on what was constitutional.
103
What kind of system was the FRG and what did this mean?
FRG was a federal system meaning state Parliaments were elected every four or five years and had considerable powers to enact laws at local level.
104
How did the Basic Law try to deal with some of the perceived flaws in the Weimar's constitution? (in order to try to make democracy in Germany stronger and more reliable)
* The powers of the President were limited.
* Parties needed to get a minimum of 5% of the vote in order to get any representation in the Bundestag, a measure aimed at preventing small extremist parties gaining representation. Also restricted political polarisation.
* A Chancellor and his government could only be brought down by a vote of no confidence if another party was ready to govern and able to form a government that had the support of more than half of the members of the Bundestag.
* Only half of the seats in the Bundestag were determined on the basis of proportional representation, in order to try to make it easier to form stable governments.
* The constitutional court upheld basic civil rights and could rule on whether government actions were illegal
* The Basic Law also emphasised human rights and pledged the government to uphold them.
* Under Article 21, political parties who were seen to be undermining the democratic nature of the FRG could be disbanded.
* The Weimar govt had to work against these pressures from the army, trade unions, and monarchists. These groups no longer had significant power bases from which to oppose the new FRG govt.
105
How many seats in the Bundestag were determined on the basis of proportional representation?
Only half - to try and make more stable governments.
106
What groups did the FRG not have to work with? (that the Weimar govt did)
Army, trade unions and monarchists.
107
What was the CDU formed out of?
Out of the remnants of the Catholic and fairly conservative Centre Party.
108
What was good about the CDU?
Catholic conservatism was less tainted by association with the Nazis than other strains of right-wing politics.
109
What did the CDU stand for?
Christian Democratic Union
110
What did Adenauer's CDU build itself into?
A powerful political force in the new Germany.
111
The new CDU party did not promote itself as a Catholic party. Who was it successful in attracting?
Right-wing and centrist Protestants.
112
Describe Adenauer's political views
Firmly anti-socialist and a believer in capitalism and a pro-American foreign policy.
113
Who was the first post-war SPD leader?
Kurt Schumacher
114
What was an aim of the Basic Law?
To prevent democracy from being undermined by constitutional means.
115
Who could the Chancellor NOT be dismissed by?
The President
116
How was the Chancellor appointed?
Chancellor was appointed by the President, but needed parliamentary approval from the Bundestag. Had to have parliamentary support
117
How did the electoral systems of the FRG ensure that more extreme parties were unlikely to gain seats?
The combination of two electoral systems made it hard.
118
How would you plan for a govt question in Germany? Three headings
* Structure
* Principles of freedom and control
* Administration e.g Lander, denazification, ACC
119
What kind of states were both Weimar and FRG?
Federal states
120
How did political parties overcome problems faced by parties in the Weimar Republic?
The Faith-based political parties and the Liberal parties negotiated to create single parties.
e.g the Liberal groups formed the Free Democratic Party (FDP) in 1947 and most faith based parties joined the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) in 1949.
Drawing on the experience of the Weimar Republic, they realised that having a large number of parties with similar aims greatly divided votes and restricted the power of each party.
121
What similar problems did FRG governments still encounter to that of Weimar?
The need for coalition governments was not avoided. Smaller parties still gained enough of the vote to ensure there was not a major party.
In the first election, the CDU/CSU won 31% of the vote, while the SPD won 29.2% and the FDP/liberal parties won 11.9%.
122
What were the results of the first FRG election?
- CDU/CSU won 31% of the vote
- SPD won 29.2%
- FDP/liberal parties won 11.9%.
123
From 1949 into the 1950s, what were the FRG and GDR still speaking/negotiating about? What happened as time passed?
Unifying Germany.
However, as time passed, they developed an increasing number of economic and political bonds that tied them to the West and USSR respectively, as the Cold War hardened.
124
What problems might Adenauer's government face in 1949?
* Political - the FRG was still under the control of the Occupation Statute and didn't have sovereignty. The allies still had to approve many aspects of government.
* Economic - despite currency reform, the economy still faced difficulties and went into recession in 1949-50. Prices were rising, despite unemployment rising to 13%
* Social - the need to build millions of houses due to the destruction of the war and the need to house refugees.
125
When did the economy go into recession?
1949-50
126
What were Adenauer's views on the German question?
- He believed that reunifying the FRG and the GDR had to be on the terms of ensuring a Western Capitalist -orientated state.
- He did not want to make concessions to communism.
- With Western support he believed West Germany could attract
East Germans - magnet theory.
127
What were Adenauer's views on Western integration?
- Like most West Germans, Adenauer mistrusted and feared the Soviets and therefore wanted protection from the West.
- He wanted to revise the restrictions of the Occupational statute and become a strong economic bartner of the West.
128
What were Adenauer's views on social aspects he needed to deal with? e.g poverty/refugees
He wanted the poor and refugees to be helped by social legislation, industrial peace and a growth in living standards.
Hopefully this would then counter the threat of communism.
129
What were Adenauer's views on economic policy?
He wanted to create economic stability using a 'social market' policy. This aimed to crate a free market with limited social regulations by the state. This became known as the economic miracle.
130
In what ways did Adenauer bring about greater political stability to West Germany?
* Adenauer's forceful management of the Bundestag and government meant that he kept FRG coalitions working together until 1957, when the CDU/CSU won a majority for the first time in the election. They remained the majority party until 1969.
* Adenauer worked to exclude political opposition (especially left-wing). In 1953 and 1957, he changed voter allocations to make it harder for smaller parties to gain a seat in the Bundestag. In 1952, the extreme right-wing Socialist Reich Party was banned. In 1956, the KPD was declared unconstitutional and disbanded.
* Adenauer's negotiations with Germany's former enemies resulted in a plan of West Europeans unity and prosperity.
* Adenauer signed French-German treaty in 1963, securing basis of lasting political friendship.
131
When did the CDU/CSU win a majority for the first time?
In 1957, and they remained the majority party until 1958.
132
What did Adenauer do in 1953 and 1957?
Changed voter allocations to make it harder for smaller parties to gain a seat in the Bundestag.
133
When was the extreme right-wing Socialist Reich Party banned?
1952
134
When was the KPD declared unconstitutional and disbanded?
1956
135
Evidence Adenauer created stability:
What was the benefit of his forceful personality?
He kept FRG coalitions working together until 1957, when the CDU/CSU won a majority.
136
Evidence Adenauer created stability:
What did Adenauer want in domestic and foreign policy?
To unite Germany and work for closer European integration - creating stability. Although members of the SPD argued that focus on the west would stop Germany becoming united.
137
Evidence Adenauer created instability:
What did members of the SPD argue focus on the West would do?
Argued that focus on the west would stop Germany becoming united.
138
Evidence Adenauer created stability:
What did some believe Adenauer's political moves e.g removing parties and changing vote allocations was?
Believed it was stabilising.
However, some thought it resulted in a three party house with shifting coalitions that went against the democratic basic law.
139
Evidence Adenauer created stability:
How did Adenauer work to exclude political opposition?
Making changes to vote allocations and seats in the Bundestag so it was harder for smaller parties to gain seats. Worked hard to exclude left-wing opposition mostly.
140
Evidence Adenauer created stability:
What did Adenauer not speak out about in 1961 which actually created stability?
The building of the Berlin Wall in August 1961, despite protests in the West - showing his indifference to unification and he was criticised for this BUT the Wall ultimately eased tensions.
141
Evidence Adenauer created stability:
What could be seen as stability?
His leadership being known as a "Chancellor Democracy"
142
Evidence Adenauer created stability:
Describe the FRG by 1961
A stable, prosperous state at the heart of Europe.
143
Evidence Adenauer created stability:
What did Adenauer and his economics minister Erhard pursue?
A free market economy. This helped to create social harmony and strong economic growth leading to stability.
144
Evidence Adenauer created stability:
What did he support? re. Jewish victims
A Claims Conference for Jewish victims of Nazism and a payment of 3 billion DM to Israel (although many in the CDU opposed this)
145
Evidence Adenauer created instability:
What did many in the CDU oppose about Adenauer?
He supported a Claims Conference for Jewish victims of Nazism and a payment of 3 billion DM to Israel
146
Evidence Adenauer created stability:
What did Adenauer push for Germany's membership of? Successful or not?
Pushed for Germany's membership of NATO.
Attained in 1955 and created a degree of unity with France through the creation of the 𝗘𝘂𝗿𝗼𝗽𝗲𝗮𝗻 𝗖𝗼𝗮𝗹 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝗦𝘁𝗲𝗲𝗹 𝗖𝗼𝗺𝗺𝘂𝗻𝗶𝘁𝘆 (ECSC). In 1957, Germany joined the 𝗘𝗘𝗖 (European Economic Community), again strengthening links with France.
147
Evidence Adenauer created stability:
How did Adenauer create a degree of unity with France?
Through the creation of the 𝗘𝘂𝗿𝗼𝗽𝗲𝗮𝗻 𝗖𝗼𝗮𝗹 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝗦𝘁𝗲𝗲𝗹 𝗖𝗼𝗺𝗺𝘂𝗻𝗶𝘁𝘆 (ECSC).
148
Evidence Adenauer created stability:
What did Adenauer join in 1957, strengthening links with France?
The EEC (European Economic Community)
149
Evidence Adenauer created stability:
How many successful terms did Adenauer have in office?
Three successful terms (but the last ones saw problems emerging)
150
Evidence Adenauer created stability:
What kind of policies did he develop that was successful?
Policies that appealed to the middle ground of politics and appealed to the moderates.
151
Evidence Adenauer created stability:
What was Adenauer instrumental in in 1949?
Drawing up the Basic Law
152
Evidence Adenauer created stability:
How many new homes did he build for Germans?
4 million and helped refugees integrate into the FRG.
153
Evidence Adenauer created stability:
What policy did he support which reduced tensions between worker and employer? + reduced strikes
He supported the co-determination policy which allowed workers to participate in the decision making process within the workplace. This reduced tension between worker and employer and allowed his government to focus on growing the economy and led to fewer strikes.
154
Evidence Adenauer created stability:
What happened in 1951? re. foreign policy
Adenauer took control of foreign policy after 1951 when the ACC allowed him to.
155
Evidence Adenauer created stability:
What did Adenauer seek and achieve?
Adenauer sought and achieved Germany's entry into the Council of Europe and the OEEC (Organisation for European Economic Co-operation) which raised the international status of the FRG.
156
By the late 1950s, what was the SPD doing?
Modernising and becoming a viable alternative to the CDU. It's focus was on GERMAN REUNIFICATION.
157
Evidence Adenauer created instability:
What was Adenauer criticised for re. ministers?
Criticised for appointing weak minister whom he treated as mere advisers.
158
Evidence Adenauer created instability:
What was his leadership known as?
A Chancellor Democracy - dominant role of Adenauer as Chancellor. It was argued competitive elections had been replaced by plebiscites in favour of the government.
159
Evidence Adenauer created instability:
What created tensions around Adenauer's political moves?
Removing parties/changing vote allocations by Adenauer was stabilising, but some saw this as a stability that went against the democratic spirit of basic law.
160
Evidence Adenauer created instability:
What did critics in the SPD and FDP object about Adenauer?
They objected to his authoritarian style and forceful management of the Bundestag, and his Atlanticist approach (ties with the West)
161
Evidence Adenauer created instability:
What did Adenauer DENOUNCE?
He denounced de-Nazification, preferring to integrate ex-Nazis into post-war Germany as they had experience. This was known as a Year Zero approach. He allowed too many ex-Nazis into his government in his haste to build a Federal and regional civil service.
162
Evidence Adenauer created instability:
What did Adenauer allow in his haste to build a Federal and regional civil service?
He allowed too many ex-Nazis into his government
163
Evidence Adenauer created instability:
What did Adenauer argue about ex-Nazis?
In 1939, all government workers had to join the Nazis or lose their jobs and so Adenauer argued that it was fair to employ ex-Nazis and the only way to establish an effective civil service.
164
Evidence Adenauer created instability:
What happened on 11th May 1951?
Article 131 was added to the Basic Law, allowing ex-Nazis to work in the civil service.
165
Evidence Adenauer created instability:
What was Article 131?
Allowed ex-Nazis to work in the civil service.
166
Evidence Adenauer created instability:
What did the public think about Adenauer's integration of ex-Nazis into the economy?
Many argued that employing ex-Nazis went too far and hinted at Nazi sympathies in the CDU.
167
Evidence Adenauer created instability:
What did a Bundestag report name in 1952?
The report named 4 ex-Nazis working in the foreign ministry, saying this could damage the FRG's reputation abroad.
168
Evidence Adenauer created instability:
Who did Adenauer refuse to sack?
His state secretary, Hans Globke, who had drafted anti-semitic laws.
169
Evidence Adenauer created instability:
What happened in 1956?
The FDP broke away from Adenauer's coalition and supported the SPD, in protest against the Hallstein Doctrine.
170
Evidence Adenauer created instability:
What did Adenauer do that caused concern?
He worked to limit freedom of speech in a way that caused concern (especially amongst SPD members and many others in West Germany as a whole) about a shift away from democracy and the Basic Law.
171
Evidence Adenauer created instability:
What happened in Feb 1961?
The Supreme Court rules in unconstitutional when Adenauer tried to set up a government-controlled TV station in January 1961 - showing lack of support for Adenauer's decisions (because executive branch was interfering with the legislative branch).
172
Evidence Adenauer created instability:
What happened in October 1962?
The magazine Der Spiegel published an article criticising the performance of West German troops in recent NATO exercises. Adenauer had SUPPORTED the ARREST of the journalists who had been critical, on the orders of Franz Josef Strauss, Minister of Defence.
173
Evidence Adenauer created instability:
Who resigned in protest over the arrest of the Der Spiegel journalists?
FDP minister - Adenauer only managed to get an SPD coalition by promising to resign in 1963.
174
Evidence Adenauer created instability:
How did Adenauer only manage to get an SPD coalition?
By promising to resign in 1963
175
Evidence Adenauer created instability:
What was the Hallstein Doctrine signed by the FRG government in 1955?
The Doctrine hardened West Germany's attitude towards East Germany. The Doctrine refused to recognise the legality of the GDR as a separate country and a lawful government and said the FRG would no longer have diplomatic relations with any country which had diplomatic relations with the GDR.
176
Evidence Adenauer created instability:
Who criticised Adenauer's approach of ties with the West and the Hallstein Doctrine?
The SPD
177
When was the Hallstein Doctrine?
1955
178
Evidence Adenauer created instability:
What did the CDU vote fall from?
Fell from 50% in 1957 to 46% in 1961
179
Evidence Adenauer created instability:
By 1961, what was Adenauer's situation like?
By 1961, he was in his eighties and his political judgement seemed to be in decline.
180
For what reasons did people criticise Adenauer's approach to governing the FRG?
* The SPD and FDP objected to his authoritarian and forceful management of the Bundestag. Some even called his leadership as "Chancellor Democracy", suggesting that he had more power than the Basic Law allowed.
* He was criticising for appointing weak ministers, whom he treated as political advisers and not equals.
* The SPD was critical of Adenauer's goals to pursue closer ties with the West and European integration. They thought it would hold back German unification.
* Despite the political stability it created, Adenauer's moves to restrict political opposition were seen by some as running counter to the democratic spirit of the Basic Law.
* Adenauer was criticised for his "year zero" approach to government (starting from 1945). He had allowed too many ex-Nazis into government.
181
What evidence is there that Adenauer was running counter to the democratic principles outlines by the Basic Law?
* In 1961, Adenauer tried to set up a government-controlled TV station realising how TV was going to play a major part in the next election campaign. It was ruled unconstitutional.
* In 1962, the magazine Der Spiegel published an article criticising the performance of West German troops in recent NATO exercises. Adenauer supported the arrest of the journalists involved. FDP ministers resigned in protest and Adenauer only managed to get a coalition by promising to resign in 1963.
182
Adenauer conclusion - stability vs instability
Adenauer had overseen the establishment of the FRG as a major economic and political force in Europe which encouraged further European integration and, despite criticism of his denazification policies and lack of focus on reunification, by 1963, the FRG had the highest living standards in the world with one of the largest economies in the world. Ultimately Germany recovered from WW2 and became stable and prosperous, and it doesn't become another dictatorship, but he did have autocratic measures and didn't win the support from the lots of people.
ULTIMATELY CREATES MORE STABILITY THAN INSTABILITY.
183
Adenauer:
Did coalitions work well?
Mostly yes
184
Why did Adenauer want to integrate ex-Nazis back into the democratic system?
Thought it was the quickest way to move on and the only way to rapidly establish an effective civil service.
185
What happened in 1953 showing more ex-Nazi integration?
The League of Expellees party (BHE, led by ex-SS officer Waldemar Kraft) won enough seats to be part of the coalition government. It broke up in 1954, and many of its members joined the CDU.
186
What happened when the FRG began to establish its own army in 1955? re Nazis
It faced problems with Nazi Party membership and solved them in the same way, by accepting ex-Nazis. Caused tension.
187
When did the SPD gain support?
After meeting at Bad Godesberg in 1959, it revised its policies, including supporting the idea of a free market economy.
188
Free market economy
An economy where the government does not interfere in the polices of businesses to control the economy, including prices and wages.
189
Ostpolitik
Establishing friendly relations with East Germany, rather than treating it as the Soviet Union, as had happened under the Hallstein Doctrine. An effort to break with the policies of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU).
190
How many CDU chancellors were there after Adenauer? Who were they?
2
Ludwig Erhard (1963-66) + Kurt Kiesinger (1966-69)
191
When did Adenauer resign?
1963
192
Cold War
When two hostile sides try to defeat each other by using political propaganda, economic restrictions etc. but no direct conflict.
193
Marshall Plan
Economic aid plan for European countries set up in 1947. USA's attempt to contain communism in Western Europe.
194
Hallstein Doctrine
Doctrine in 1955 that refused to recognise the legality of East Germany as a separate country.
195
Berlin Wall
A barrier constructed overnight on 12th August 1961, after the leader of the East German Communist Party, Walter Ulbricht, ordered a barricade to stop East Germans defecting and to halt the exodus to the West.
196
What did Erhard and Kiesinger both lead?
Coalitions where the newly formed SPD (with a more liberal, less left-wing policy programme) was gaining influence.
197
Summarise Adenauer
* Achieved political stability (at expense of spirit of democracy)
* Support for CDU/CSU increased - 31% to 50.2% by 1957.
* Economic recovery - economic miracle
* Democratisation
* Westernised approach - favoured ties with the West - this continued under Erhard and became the Atlanticist approach.
* Pushed for membership of NATO in 1955 and the formation of the EEC which strengthened links with France.
* Denounced denazification policies and instead integrated former Nazis in post-war German. Even when his state secretary, Hans Globke, was revealed to have been involved in drafting anti-semitic laws under the Nazi regime, he did not sack him.
* Passed Restitution laws in 1953 to compensate Jews.
198
What laws to Adenauer pass in 1953?
Restitution laws to compensate Jews.
199
When was Erhard chancellor?
1963-66
200
When was Kiesinger chancellor?
1966-69
201
Who were the next CDU chancellors after Adenauer?
Erhard and Kiesinger
202
Who did Kiesinger enter into a Grand Coalition with?
Kiesinger entered into a Grand Coalition with the SPD.
203
After Adenauer:
What split was emerging amongst the CDU/CSU?
Spilt between 𝗔𝘁𝗹𝗮𝗻𝘁𝗶𝗰𝗶𝘀𝘁𝘀, who wanted to carry on working with the West, especially America and Britain, and 𝗚𝗮𝘂𝗹𝗹𝗶𝘀𝘁𝘀 who wanted to work with France but wanted to shift the focus to co-operation with East Germany.
204
What did Erhard try to do? re phones
Erhard tried to introduced emergency laws to search phones but was blocked by the SPD. However, by 1968 this law was approved by the SPD due to increasing opposition from extremist parties.
205
Who were the following chancellors after Erhard and Kiesinger?
* Willy Brandt (SPD 1969-74)
* Helmut Schmidt (SPD 1974-82)
* Helmut Kohl (CDU 1982-98)
following a policy of Ostpolitik - closer ties with the East.
206
Altogether, which chancellors succeeded Adenauer?
* Ludwig Erhard (CDU 1963-66)
* Kurt Kiesinger (CSU 1966-69)
* Willy Brandt (SPD 1969-74)
* Helmut Schmidt (SPD 1974-82)
* Helmut Kohl (CDU 1982-98)
207
Overall, was there political stability from 1969 onwards?
No - there was little political stability from 1969 onwards and more opposition from extremist parties emerged in the late 1960s.
208
What aims of Adenauer did Erhard follow?
Erhard followed Adenauer's Atlanticist policies.
209
What did Erhard increasingly try to do?
To introduce emergency laws to tap phones, search homes, open mail etc. in times of 'serious political tension'.
210
What was seen as an example of CSU conservative reaction to criticism?
Erhard's measures to introduce emergency laws to tap phones, search homes, open mail etc. in times of 'serious political tension'.
211
What did Erhard introduce in 1966?
A budget that included such heavy taxation that the FDP ministers resigned. Erhard could not form a coalition, so he resigned.
212
Why did Erhard resign?
In his tenure as Chancellor, Erhard lacked support from Adenauer, who remained chairman of the party until 1966, and failed to win the public's confidence in his handling of a budget deficit and his direction of foreign policy. His popularity waned, and he resigned, unable to form a coalition. Weak successor to Adenauer.
213
Evidence of how the FRG wasn't stable by 1963?
Nowhere near unification of Germany. Adenauer didn't even comment on the building of the Berlin Wall which was a huge change for Germany. Still political disagreements. CDU vote fell from 50% to 46% in 1961. Lots of issues about denazification.
214
Possible interpretation
Adenauer produced political stability...
at the expense of personal freedom.
215
After Erhard, what was formed in 1966?
A CDU/CSU/SPD Grand Coalition, formed with Kurt Kiesinger as chancellor, but the SPD leader Willy Brandt as vice-chancellor and foreign minister.
216
What was the situation like at the time the Grand Coalition was formed in 1966?
German economy was in a downturn and there was growing political hostility towards the government, some of it violent. Opposition was coming from small extremist political parties, e.g the neo-Nazi National Democratic Party (NPD), and from the students movement which was articulating a sense of protest and unease and the German Federation of Trade Unions. This pushed the government to be more repressive e.g the SPD had strongly objected to the idea of an emergency law, but they voted with the CSU to introduce one on the 28th June 1968.
There was a perceived need for "extra-parliamentary opposition" with the lack of of any real opposition in parliament.
217
What coalition was formed in 1969?
A new period in West Germany was inaugurated when the SPD managed - after considerable post-election bargaining - to form a coalition with the now more liberal FDP, and to become, for the first time in the two decades of the Federal republic's history, the dominant party of government.
The parties joined to overcome the CDU-CSU plurality in the Bundestag and to elect as chancellor the SPD leader, Willy Brandt.
218
What did the coalition hope would win government support again? (after there was growing political hostility in the 1960s)
A shift towards Ostpolitik (working with GDR and rejecting the Hallstein Doctrine)
Kiesinger was the first CSU chancellor to support this policy.
219
What happened during Kiesinger's chancellorship?
* Rising opposition pushed the government to be more repressive e.g the Emergency Law was passed through the Bundestag in 1968 (the SPD had previously strongly objected to the proposed legislation)
* A shift towards a foreign policy of Ostpolitik ("eastern policy") - rejecting the Hallstein Doctrine and working with the GDR.
* Authoritarian tendencies/ex-member of Nazi Party
220
When did the FRG get its first SPD chancellor?
In 1969, Willy Brandt.
From 1969 to 1982, the government was an SPD/FDP alliance with SPD chancellors Willy Brandt and Helmut Schmidt.
221
Describe the government from 1969-1982
The government was an SPD/FDP alliance with SPD chancellors Willy Brandt and Helmut Schmidt.
222
What did Adenauer sign in 1963?
A French-German treaty in 1963 (The Élysée Treaty), securing basis of lasting political friendship. It symbolised the reconciliation between the two nations and lays the foundations for close bilateral cooperation to support European integration.
223
Under Adenauer, did the FRG transform?
Yes, under Adenauer the FRG transformed from a defeated power to one fully integrated into Western Europe with political sovereignty and on equal level with other West European states - was impressive.
224
Why did Adenauer resign in 1963?
Adenauer supported the arrests of Der Spiegel journalists in October 1962, pressured by Franz Josef Strauss. After public outrage and heavy protests from the coalition partner FDP he dismissed Strauss, but the reputation of Adenauer and his party had already suffered. Adenauer managed to remain in office for almost another year, but the scandal increased the pressure already on him to fulfill his promise to resign before the end of the term.
225
Why did people dislike Adenauer?
Accused of sacrificing national interest of reunification to Western integration.
Revival of remilitarisation in Germany was criticised for taking away any chances of reunification with east Germany.
226
What was Willy Brandt's main policy?
Brandt pushed ahead with the policy of Ostpolitik - and this remained a policy for all chancellors until 1989.
227
Context for Willy Brandt
* Younger than Adenauer and his generation of politicians
* Brandt had spent the war in Norway and was one of those who had been critical of Adenauer's policy of ex-Nazi assimilation.
228
Did Brandt support Adenauer's policy of ex-Nazi assimilation?
No - he was critical of it
229
Evidence of stability under Brandt
- His main policy was that of Ostpolitik, as he tried to create closer ties between West and East Germany and improve relations with Poland and the Soviet Union. Visited East German and inlet at Warsaw Ghetto.
- Spending on social welfare e.g education, housing, pensions
- Afterward the 1972 crisis, Brandt responded by calling an early election in November 1972, in effect, a vote of confidence on Brandt and Ostpolitik. Brandt's Ostpolitik as well as his reformist domestic policies were popular with parts of the young generation and he led the SPD to its best-ever federal election result in late 1972. In the highest turnout, the SPD had one the most seats.
230
Did the government support Brandt's policy of Ostpolitik?
No - his commitment to Ostpolitik met with serious opposition in the Bundestag, especially from the regional governments.
231
What else was met with opposition in Brandt's government?
Liberal measures Brandt's government put through, for example, the decriminalisation of homosexuality and reducing the voting age to 18.
232
What liberal measures did Brandt introduce?
The decriminalisation of homosexuality and reducing the voting age to 18.
233
Why did the CSU work to undermine Brandt's government and the SPD/FDP coalition?
The CSU found it hard to accept that they had less political power, so they worked hard to undermine the new government.
234
Describe the 1972 crisis under Willy Brandt
In October 1970, several significant FDP politicians joined the CDU, and in March 1972, several SPD members also joined the DU. They then forced a 'constructive vote of no confidence, naming Rainer Barzel of the CDU as the replacement chancellor.
The vote failed by just two votes.
235
During the 1972 crisis under Willy Brandt, who was aimed to replace Brandt as the replacement chancellor
Rainer Barzel of the CDU
236
What happened after the vote to replace Brandt with Rainer Barzel failed?
Brandt responded by calling an early election in November 1972. It was, in effect, a vote of confidence on Brandt and Ostpolitik. In the highest turnout ever, the SPD won the most seats.
237
Brandt: What was discovered in 1974?
That one of Brandt's personal advisers was a GDR spy.
238
How did Brandt respond to the news of his adviser being an East German spy?
It was shown that he knew nothing of this, but he felt compelled to resign on 24 May 1974, despite the support of his party and others in the Bundestag, because he felt he should have known about, and removed, the spy.
239
Evidence of instability under Brandt
- Critical of Adenauer's policy of ex-Nazi assimilation
- Many disappointed in failure to tackle economy in the 1970s.
- Govt faced threats from extremists.
- Brandt's commitment to Ostpolitik met with serious opposition in the Bundestag, as did several more liberal measures his government put through e.g the decriminalisation of homosexuality and reducing the voting age to 18.
- It was discovered that one of his advisers was a GDR spy, and he felt compelled to resign, after this.
240
Who was Helmut Schmidt?
The new SPD chancellor after Brandt.
241
Describe situation for Schmidt when he became chancellor
He faced a period of economic and domestic upheaval.
242
Why did Schmidt win the elections of 1976 and 1980?
Mainly because there was no viable CDU candidate
243
What was Schmidt careful not to do?
Not to introduce policies that rocked the political boat.
244
What was Schmidt accused of?
Adopting right-wing economic measures e.g high taxation and welfare cuts, that made him as conservative as members of the CSU.
245
Why did Schmidt face growing opposition?
For his failure to push through economic policies through the Bundestag - failed to deal with inflation - and he also faced growing opposition from a new political force - the Green Party, which was set up in 1980 following the growing concern of environmental issues during the 1970s and 1980s.
246
What happened on 1st October 1982?
A 'constructive vote of no confidence' in the Bundestag forced him to resign and he was replaced by the CDU's Helmut Kohl.
247
Evidence of stability under Schmidt
- Sought reconciliation with the Soviet-bloc countries of eastern Europe while at the same time maintaining West Germany's partnership with the United States.
- Careful not to introduce policies that rocked the political boat.
248
What did Schmidt do in foreign affairs?
Sought reconciliation with the Soviet-bloc countries of eastern Europe while at the same time maintaining West Germany's partnership with the United States.
249
Evidence of instability under Schmidt
- Confronted with a period of domestic and economic upheaval.
- He mainly won the elections of 1976 and 1980 mainly because there was no viable CDU candidate.
- Accused of adopting right-wing economic measures, for example, high taxation and welfare cuts.
- Faced growing opposition for his failure to push through economic policies through the Bundestag.
- Faced growing opposition from the Green Party.
250
What did Schmidt face growing opposition from?
For his failure to push through economic policies through the Bundestag + the Green Party.
251
What was facing growing concern throughout the 1970s and 1980s?
Environmental issues were of growing concern through the 1970s and 1980s. Smog, nuclear power plants and other environmental issues attracted a growing number of protesters of all ages and classes.
252
What happened in March 1977?
About 15,000 people protested against the building of a nuclear reprocessing plant in Lower Saxony - environmental issues becoming more important.
253
What happened in July 1978?
The first national 'green' party, Green Action for the Future (GAZ), was set up.
254
What happened in January 1980?
The 'Greens' national political party was set up. From 1983 on, it steadily gained a share of the vote
255
How did Kohl start his leadership?
As an unelected chancellor, so he called early elections on 6th March 1983. These brought the CDU/CSU 48.8% of the vote and so validated his position.
256
Who did Kohl face opposition from?
Greens on the left and the Republicans (set up in 1983) on the right.
257
What kind of parliament did Kohl have to manage?
One where the media was uncovering corruption scandals that affected politicians in every party but the Greens.
258
What were Kohl's views?
He promised continuity, and his economic policies and Ostpolitik policies followed those of earlier governments.
259
Why did Kohl specifically want stability?
He faced a sustained outbreak of terrorism directed at other governments and German institutions e.g the bombing of both the US airbase in Rein-Main and Frankfurt Airport in 1985.
260
Did Kohl work for unification with East Germany?
Yes - but this still seemed a distant prospect despite the changes in Soviet policy that gave greater freedom to communist Eastern Europe. The East German government had not welcomed the changes.
261
When was the fall of the Berlin Wall?
9th November 1989 - a government official announced that travel restrictions were lifted. People flooded through the Berlin Wall checkpoints and Germany, physically reunited, faced a new political future.
262
What was happening to the GDR by 1989?
It was under increasing pressure to open its borders. Demonstrations calling for the border to be opened and, as significantly, for change to the political system, spread across the cities and hundreds of thousands of people eventually took part.
263
Evidence of stability under Kohl
- Berlin Wall destroyed in 1989 - overseen reunification of Germany and end to the Cold War?
- Early election bough the CDU/CDU 48.8% of the vote, so validated his position.
- Promise continuity and his economic policies and Ostpolitik policies followed those of earlier governments.
- Worked to develop European integration with EEC
264
Evidence of instability under Kohl
- Relations with Eastern European countries worsened slightly.
- Had to manage a parliament where the media was uncovering corruption scandals that affected politicians in every party but the Greens.
- Faced opposition from the Greens on the left and the Republicans on the right.
- Started his leadership as an unelected chancellor.
- Faced a sustained outbreak of terrorism directed at other governments and German institutions.
265
What happened during Kiesinger's chancellorship?
Rising opposition pushed the government to be more repressive e.g The Emergency Law was passed through the Bundestag in 1968 (the SPD had previously strongly objected to the proposed legislation).
* A shift towards a foreign policy of Ostpolitik ("eastern policy") - rejecting the Hallstein Doctrine & working with the GDR.
266
What happened during Brandt's chancellorship?
* SPD/FDP coalition government. Brandt pushed ahead with the policy of Ostpolitik, which remained a policy of FRG governments until 1989. Brandt's commitment to the policy was met with serious opposition in the Bundestag, as were several more liberal measures his government passed (e.g. the decriminalisation of homosexuality & reducing the voting age to 18 years). The CSU worked hard to undermine the SPD/FDP coalition under Brandt.
* Between 1970 and 1972, several FDP and SPD members joined the CDU and forced a 'constructive vote of no confidence' on Brandt and Ostpolitik. The vote failed by two votes in the Bundestag, Brandt called an early general election and his party, the SPD, won the most seats.
* 1974: It was discovered that one of Brandt's advisors was a spy and Brandt felt compelled to resign, despite the support of his party & others in the Bundestag.
267
What happened during Schmidt's chancellorship?
* Confronted with a period of economic and domestic upheaval.
* Schmidt was accused of adopting right-wing economic measures (e.g. high taxation & welfare cuts) and faced growing opposition for his failure to pass economic policies through the Bundestag.
* Faced growing opposition from a new political force, the Green Party, which was set up in 1980 following the growing concern of environment issues during the 1970s and 1980s.
* October 1982: A 'constructive vote of no confidence' in the Bundestag forced him to resign.
268
What happened during Kohl's chancellorship
* Continued economic and Ostpolitik policies of previous governments.
* A sustained outbreak of terrorism directed at other governments and German institutions (e.g. the bombings of US airbases in Rein-Main and Frankfurt Airport in 1985).
* Kohl worked for the unification of Germany, which seemed a distant prospect. However, by 1989, the GDR was under increased pressure to open its borders. On January 1, 1989, East Germany relaxed its travel restrictions.
