Political Ideas

Question 1

Authority

Answer 1

The belief that a hierarchical structure of power is necessary to maintain order and discipline in society

Question 2

Classical liberalism

Answer 2

A strand of liberalism emphasising limited government, free markets and the protection of individual rights

Question 3

Collectivism

Answer 3

A principle advocating for communal ownership and cooperative management of resources and decision-making

Question 4

Dark greens

Answer 4

Advocates of more radical changes,
often questioning the sustainability of modern industrial society itself

Question 5

Egoism

Answer 5

The belief that individuals act in their self-interest, often associated with the view that society should allow for personal freedom and responsibility, with minimal state intervention

Question 6

Equality

Answer 6

The principle that individuals, regardless of certain characteristics like gender, should have the same rights, opportunities and status

Question 7

Individual autonomy

Answer 7

The belief in the freedom of individuals to make their own choices without external coercion

Question 8

Individual freedom

Answer 8

The belief that individuals should have the right to act, think and speak freely without unnecessary interference from others or the state

Question 9

Light greens

Answer 9

Environmentalists who advocate incremental changes within existing systems to address environmental issues

Question 10

Marxism

Answer 10

A theory of socialism developed by Karl Marx, emphasising class struggle, the abolition of capitalism and the establishment of a classless society

Question 11

Modern liberalism

Answer 11

A form of liberalism that supports a more active role for the state in promoting social welfare and reducing inequality while maintaining individual rights

Question 12

Negative freedom

Answer 12

The freedom from external interference or restrictions, where individuals are free to act as they wish, as long as they do not harm others

Question 13

New Right

Answer 13

A combination of free-market economic policies and traditional conservative social values that emerged in the late 20th Century

Question 14

Other-regarding actions

Answer 14

Actions that affect others in society, where intervention may be justified to prevent harm or protect rights

Question 15

Positive freedom

Answer 15

The freedom to act in a way that allows individuals to achieve their potential, often involving support or assistance from society or the state

Question 16

Revolutionary socialism

Answer 16

A form of socialism that seeks to achieve a socialist society through radical and often abrupt removal of the existing government in a revolution

Question 17

Self-regarding actions

Answer 17

Actions that affect only the individual performing them, where society has no right to interfere, as they do not harm others

Question 18

Social democracy

Answer 18

A moderate form of socialism advocating for gradual reforms within a capitalist system to promote equality and social welfare

Question 19

Sustainability

Answer 19

The belief in managing resources in a way that meets current needs without compromising future generations

Question 20

Third way

Answer 20

A centrist political approach, blending elements of traditional socialism with market-oriented policies, seeking to combine social justice with economic efficiency

Question 21

Tradition

Answer 21

The idea that societal stability and continuity are best maintained by preserving established institutions and practices

Question 22

Whig principles

Answer 22

Political principles associated with the Whig party, emphasising constitutionalism, limited government and the protection of individual rights within a framework of gradual reform

Question 23

Mechanistic theory

Answer 23

Linked to the writings of John Locke, this argues that mankind is rational and therefore capable of devising a state that reflects mankind’s needs. It was a pointed rebuff
to notions like the ‘divine right of kings’, which argued that the state reflected God’s will and that obedience to the state was a religious duty

Question 24

Egotistical individualism

Answer 24

Linked to early (classical) liberalism, this denotes a belief that human beings are naturally drawn to
the advancement of their own, selfish interests and the pursuit of their own happiness. Its proponents, citing mankind’s concurrent rationalism, deny this
leads to conflict or gross insensitivity

Question 25

Economic liberalism

Answer 25

This is another term for capitalism, an economic system that emerged in Europe in the late seventeenth century. The liberal aspect of capitalism stems from three factors. First, it involves private property, which early liberals like John Locke considered a ‘natural right’. Second, it is individualistic in theory, involving individual traders cooperating and competing. Third, it is thought to be of ultimate benefit to all — thus revealing liberalism’s eternal optimism and belief in progress

Question 26

State of nature

Answer 26

This was a philosophical device used in the seventeenth century by both Thomas Hobbes and John Locke to justify the very different types of political state they were proposing. It referred to what life might have been like before laws, formal rules and governments came into being

Question 27

Social contract

Answer 27

Linked to Enlightenment philosophers such as Locke and Rousseau, this term denotes that the state should be a ‘deal’ between governments and governed. It states that in return for submitting to the state’s laws, the governed should be guaranteed certain rights and that, if these rights are violated, so is the citizen’s obligation to obey the state’s laws

Question 28

Tolerance/Harm Principle

Answer 28

Within liberalism, these twin terms refer to the belief that particular views and activities — particularly those we might frown upon — should be tolerated, just as long as they do not ‘harm’ the freedom of others. Both concepts are strongly linked to the liberal belief in individual freedom

Question 29

Foundational equality/legal equality

Answer 29

This refers to the liberal belief that every individual is born equal, with equal natural rights. Such individuals are therefore entitled to legal equality in a liberal state. This would involve equality before the law and an equal recognition of individual rights

Question 30

Equality of opportunity

Answer 30

Liberals believe that all individuals should be allowed similar opportunities to develop their potential. Unlike for socialism, however, equality of opportunity for liberalism does not necessarily exist alongside greater equality of outcome

Question 31

Limited government

Answer 31

This involves government being ‘limited’, in terms of how it can act, by a constitution’s formal rules and procedures. It is therefore the opposite of arbitrary rule, as practised in medieval, monarchical states

Question 32

Laissez-faire capitalism

Answer 32

Based on the liberal belief in private property, and the classical liberal belief in ‘negative liberty’, this is an economic system which allows private enterprise and capitalism to operate with little or no interference from the state

Question 33

Negative liberty

Answer 33

A key feature of classical liberalism, this is a notion of freedom that involves individuals being left alone to pursue their destiny. Any attempt to interfere with individual actions may therefore be judged an infringement of liberty

Question 34

Minimal state

Answer 34

A feature of classical liberalism, the minimal state was one that reflected the concept of ‘negative liberty’ by minimising state activities — for example, legislating and taxing as infrequently as possible, while confining its range to areas such as defence and the protection of private property

Question 35

Developmental individualism

Answer 35

This relates to the liberal philosophy of John Stuart Mill, who wished to focus on what individuals could become rather than what they had become. It explained Mill’s strong emphasis upon the value of formal education within a liberal society

Question 36

Positive freedom

Answer 36

This relates to the liberal philosophy of John Stuart Mill, who wished to focus on what individuals could become rather than what they had become. It explained Mill’s strong emphasis upon the value of formal education within a liberal society

Question 37

Enabling state

Answer 37

Linked to the notion of positive liberty, an enabling state was one that extended its activities so as to ‘liberate’ individuals from restrictive social and economic problems, thus ‘enabling’ them to fulfil their potential

Question 38

Social liberalism

Answer 38

This represents an updated version of the historic liberal belief in tolerance. It involves legislation that may criminalise actions that discriminate against individuals on the grounds of race, gender, sexual orientation, disability and religious persuasion

Question 40

Change to conserve

Answer 40

This is the fundamental principle of conservatism and one that distinguishes a conservative from a reactionary. It indicates a belief that for something valuable to be preserved, it has to be continuously updated and maintained

Question 41

Human imperfection

Answer 41

Drawing upon the Old Testament doctrine of original sin, this refers to the timeless flaws of humanity — flaws which make any quest for the ‘perfect’ society misguided and potentially disastrous

Question 42

Empiricism

Answer 42

This indicates a preference for ‘evidence’ over ‘theory’ and tends to emphasise ‘what is’ over ‘what should be’

Question 43

Normative

Answer 43

This denotes how arrangements theoretically ‘should’ be in future — a term conservatives disdain, given their stress upon the uncertainty of our existence

Question 44

Progressive

Answer 44

Linked to the other ideologies (socialism and liberalism), this denotes a belief that problems invariably have solutions and that the future must always be superior to the past and present — an assumption about which conservatives are sceptical

Question 45

Hierarchy

Answer 45

This concept holds that equality of status and power is undesirable, that human affairs require leadership from a small number of individuals, and that the majority should accept their judgements. Hierarchy’s apologists claim that successful structures, social and political, tend to have an unequal distribution of power

Question 46

Paternalism/noblesse oblige

Answer 46

These terms refer to the ‘fatherly’ obligations that a ruling class — or ‘nobility’ — has to society as a whole. It can take the form of hard paternalism or soft paternalism. In the case of hard paternalism, it involves elites deciding what is best for the rest, irrespective of what the rest want. In the case of soft paternalism, power still rests with the elites but elite decisions will usually be preceded by listening carefully to what the non- elites want, with perhaps a degree of consultation involved.

Question 47

Thatcherism

Answer 47

This is essentially a synonym for New Right conservatism in the UK. Between 1979 and 1990, the governments of Margaret Thatcher pursued a controversial mixture of neo-liberal policies (such as privatisation and tax reduction) and neo-conservative policies (such as strengthened police powers, curbs on immigration and tax breaks for ‘traditional’ family structures)

Question 48

Tory

Answer 48

Along with the Whigs, the Tories were one of the two main parties in England from the seventeenth to the early nineteenth centuries. They were linked to themes such as authority, tradition, hierarchy and religion. Following alliances with sections of the Whig Party, the Tories eventually evolved in the 1830s into a broader political grouping known as the Conservative Party

Question 49

One-nation conservatism

Answer 49

Dating from the 1870s, and linked to British politicians like Benjamin Disraeli, this term denotes a belief that conservatism should prioritise national unity by attending to the condition of society’s poorer classes. It has been used by conservative politicians to justify greater state intervention in society and the economy, and thus higher levels of public spending and taxation

Question 50

Fascism

Answer 50

This was a revolutionary ideology which emerged in Europe during the 1920s and 1930s, finding its most devastating expression in the politics of Adolf Hitler’s National Socialism in Germany and Benito Mussolini’s nationalist politics in Italy. Because of its nationalistic and nostalgic character, it is sometimes seen as a form of ‘ultra- conservatism’. Yet its belief in radical and immediate change, its contempt for traditional institutions and local diversity, and its glorification of dictatorship also make it abhorrent to orthodox conservatives

Question 51

Supranationalism

Answer 51

This refers to a state whose authority cuts across national boundaries. The Soviet Union was a clear example; the European Union is said to be a developing example. British and American conservatives tend to dislike the concept, seeing it as a threat to ‘one nation’ and the traditional nation- state. Post-war continental conservatives, such as the Christian democrats, are much more receptive, seeing supranationalism as an antidote to the legacy of fascism’s ‘ultra- nationalism’

Question 52

Anti-permissive

Answer 52

Linked to the neo-conservative wing of the New Right, such policies seek to reverse much of the social liberalism dating from the 1960s. Neo-conservatism takes a critical view of issues like divorce, abortion and homosexuality

Question 53

Atomism

Answer 53

This relates to the view that human beings seek autonomy and ‘space’, which therefore leads to only a vague sense of society. Conservatives traditionally reject this view, arguing that individuals are closely connected by their communities. However, New Right conservatives are much more atomistic in their view of human nature and society