Pompeii and Herculaneum CORE: 2 Flashcards
(146 cards)
1
Q
Detail the geographical context of Pompeii.
A
- Sources: Map of Campania, Strabo “Geography”, Pliny the Elder “Natural History”, Florus “Brief History”.
- located in Rome
- near the Bay of Naples
- Southern area of Campania
- built on volcanic plateau, between the Sarno River and Mount Vesuvius
- 66 hectares
- connected coast with fertile agricultural region inland
- south of Mount Vesuvius
- economic prosperity due to fertile plains
2
Q
Detail the geographical context of Herculaneum.
A
- Source: Map of Campania
- located in Rome
- near Bay of Naples
- South area of Campania
- 7km from Mount Vesuvius
- steep landscape
- approx: 12-20 hectares (entire town not yet excavated)
3
Q
What are the resources of Pompeii and Herculaneum?
A
• access to natural water springs for drinking
- this water went through an aqueduct
• ideal climate for growing food: hot dry summer, mild moist winters, early spring
• natural vegetation grew along rivers e.g. willow trees, rosemary
• used pumice as millstones for grinding grain and pressing olives
- also used to build roads and buildings
• flowers, roses, used for perfume
• olives used for olive oil
• grapes used to produce wine
• coast provided seafood e.g. tuna, anchovies, eels
- fish garum
4
Q
Seneca’s evidence on resources.
A
- pleasant bay
* bounded by sea
5
Q
Pliny the Elders evidence on resources.
A
- life sustaining
- healthy atmosphere
- mild climate
- forest
- corn, vines and olives
- sheep
6
Q
The Fresco from the House of the Centenary (Pompeii) tells us what?
A
Shows fertile plains, grapes, birds, rich nature.
7
Q
Plans and streetscapes of Pompeii, what’s the area and the type of roads?
A
Area: 66-67 hectares
only two-thirds excavated
Roads: narrow valleys, 5 metres wide
8
Q
Plans and streetscapes of Pompeii, what’s the gradient slope, architectural influence?
A
Gradient/Slope: 10-40m above sea level
Architectural influence: Greek
9
Q
Plans and streetscapes of Pompeii, water, houses, gates.
A
Water: flowed into water tower from aqueduct in Misenum
• went to three main pipes
Houses: one storey
Gates: 8 gates named after towns they lead to
10
Q
Plans and streetscapes of Pompeii, towers, public fountains, traffic.
A
Towers: 12
42 Public Fountains
Heavy traffic, imprint on roads
11
Q
Plans and streetscapes of Herculaneum, what’s the area and the type of roads?
A
Area: 12-20 hectares
- only 4 complete insulae blocks excavated
Roads: wide for Roman town, 2.5-7 metres wide
- Streets paved with stone
12
Q
Plans and streetscapes of Herculaneum, what’s the gradient slope, architectural influence?
A
Gradient/Slope: very steep
Architectural influence: Greek
13
Q
Plans and streetscapes of Herculaneum, water, houses,
A
Water: through drains, flowed into fountains from aqueducts
Houses: two storey
14
Q
Plans and streetscapes of Herculaneum, public fountains, traffic.
A
3 Fountains
Less traffic, better drainage
15
Q
Ancient Writers for Pompeii and Herculaneum.
A
Pliny the Younger - Letters: details of the eruption
Strabo - Geography: geographical setting, historical background of Pompeii
Suetonius - Titus: Relief work in Campania after eruption
Dio Cassius – Roman History: Eruption
Pliny the Elder – Natural History: Geography of Pompeii and Herculaneum
16
Q
Official Inscriptions in P/H
A
Official inscriptions
• at Hall of the Augustales: Herculaneum
• family tomb of Clodii: “Aulus Clodius Flaccus, son of Aulus… on the next day in the Amphitheatre (he presented) by himself 30 pairs of athletes and 5 pairs of gladiators” (CIL X 1074d)
17
Q
Graffiti in P/H
A
• near Amphitheatre in Pompeii of actors: “Actius, master of stage performers”
18
Q
Wall paintings and frescos? P/H
A
paint painted on wet plaster, become fixed as it dries
• Sappho fresco: Pompeii
19
Q
Statues? P/H
A
MARCUS NONIUS BALBUS: HERCULANEUM
20
Q
Mosaics P/H
A
House of Faun Pompeii
21
Q
Human remains P/H
A
- Skeletons found in Boatsheds at Herculaneum
* Plaster cast bodies Pompeii
22
Q
Animal remains P/H
A
• Chained dog at Museum at Boscoreale
23
Q
What are limitations of sources?
A
- Incomplete sources
- Problems dating political notices
- Parts of both Herculaneum and Pompeii have not been excavated
- Lack of written sources about every day life
24
Q
Reliability and Evaluation of Sources?
A
- Where was it found?
- Who made it?
- When was it written?
- Who wrote it?
25
Evidence of the eruption?
* Date: 24th August AD 79
* 11 different accounts
* 2 x coins Titus (emperor at the time)
* preparing for harvest
26
Pliny the Youngers letters o Tacitus?
Letter 1: Uncle’s death during eruption: Pliny the Elder
- describes initial stages of eruption (plinian phase)
Letter 2: describes own activities during eruption
“Behind us were frightening dark clouds, rent by lightning twisted and hurled, opening to reveal huge figures of flame”
Sigurdsson: Pliny’s letters are first eyewitness to volcanic eruption
(reconstructed phases of the eruption by examining the given sizes in the strata)
27
Geological evidence of the eruption?
TWO phases of the Eruption
The Plinian Phase: initial burst of pumice, ash and stone
Nuee ardente: pyroclastic surge
28
Buildings as evidence for the eruption.
• The damage done to the buildings throughout the eruption tells us the nature of the eruption and the fact that it actually did occur
29
Human remains as evidence for the eruption.
• Plaster casts
• Skeletal remains
• shows us what they thought were valuables
Causes of death:
• Baxter Out of 41 bodies studied, only half would have died from asphyxiation and thermal shock
• Collapsing of buildings and accumulation of ash/debris
• Pyroclastic surge (Herculaneum) killed instantly
30
Social structure: Men (upper class) (freeborn)
– Had full legal rights
– Could hold political office
– Controlled public finances, spaces and religion
– Privileged seats in Amphitheatre and Theatre
– Statues and tombs erected
– Evidence: Marcus Nonius Balbus
31
Women (upper class) (freeborn)
```
– could not hold political office
– under legal control
– could own property
– conducted businesses
– constructed buildings and tombs
– held priesthoods
– Statues and tombs erected
```
32
Example of upper class women.
Source: Portrait of Terentius Neo and his Wife, from House of Julia Felix
• read and write
• sung and played the lyre (small harp)
• believed educated women were better wives and women
33
Eumachia?
• Father rich brick manufacturer
• used wealth to build the collegium of the fullers in the Forum
Inscription: “To Eumachia, daughter of Lucius, public priestess; the fullers (set this up)”
34
Business women in P/H
partnership with husbands
- allowed to earn profit
- could own property
- not allowed to become bankers
35
Tradeswomen in P/H
worked in homes, making and mending clothes
- earned little money
- employed in fullonicae to brush and thicken cloth
36
Slave women in P/H
duties dependent on needs of owner
- cooking, cleaning and nannies
- personal attendants for wealthy upper class women
- some well treated
gold snake bracelet in Pompeii inscribed: “from master to his slave girl”
37
Prostitutes in P/H
- act not illegal
| - patricians and Equites forbidden to become prostitutes
38
Freedmen 'liberti'
* men and women freed from slavery
* worked for former masters
* many become wealthy and influential
39
Freed 'men'?
– Could be voted in elections
– Owned businesses
– Participated in some religious cults
40
Freed 'women'
– Could not hold formal political office
| – Some worked for former masters
41
Slaves?
40% of population
– few tombstones attributed to slaves
– Roman Empire relied on slaves for labour
– large household could own hundreds of slaves
– considered property
– no legal rights
– could not take action against owner for mistreatment
– children property of owner
– once freed had to buy children from owner
42
Upper class made up of?
1. Patrician
• toga with purple stripe
2. Equites
• toga with narrow purple stripe and gold ring
• achieved status by holding public office
43
Middle Class?
* Freed citizens: Men and women who made moderate living through businesses such as fulling, bread making and wine production
* provided essentials goods and services
* would work for past owners in businesses, although majority of profit went to owner
44
Local Political life in P/H overall?
Self governing town BUT subject to imperial rule by Rome
o Nero banned gladiatorial contests for 10 years in 59 AD
Only male citizens could vote
Women could not hold political office
People in positions of power wealthy
Wealthy used position to develop strong patron-client relationship
o With citizens
o Gain political and economic power
45
Political life: Aediles
two junior magistrates
Prerequisite for duumvirship
Supervised markets, temples and streets
Made public offerings
46
Political Life: Duumvir
```
two chief magistrates
Presided over curia and courts
Oversaw revenue and taxation
Supervised public projects
E.g. Marcus Nonius Balbus
No military power
Wore toga praetexta
```
47
Political Life: Quinquennales
Duumvir
Elected every 5 years
Revised citizenship roles
48
Political Life: Town Council
```
Equivalent of Senate in Rome
Made local laws
Presided in curia
Minimum age 25
Members for life unless dismissed by Quinquennales
```
49
Name leisure activities.
• Archaeological evidence of Baths
• Graffiti: visiting actors: “Actius, master of stage performers” near amphitheatre
• Prostitution: inscriptions, archaeological evidence at Pompeii
• Gladiatorial games
o Combats between gladiators and between men and animals
o Trained at palaestra
o Evidence: archaeological find of helmets, greaves and weapons in gladiatorial barracks
inscription “Auctus of the Julian school has won 50 times”
remains of amphitheatre
• Cock fighting
o Evidence: mosaic depicting roosters fighting each other
• Pantomimes: mime and music in theatre
50
Name the aspect of Food.
• Seafood: Mosaic, House of Faun Pompeii
• Carbonised dates, figs, and olives
• List of foods
o Bread, wine, sausages, leeks
• Garum: small terracotta jars
o Thick, salty fish sauce
• Thermopolia
• Varied diet
o Evidence:
Carbonised eggs, figs, loaves of bread and nuts
Animals bones sheep, cattle, pigs meat
Fish bones, sea urchins seafood
Jashemski: many houses had room for crops (figs, olives, cherries, vegetables)
Mosaics and frescoes fruit, fish, poultry
51
Describe dining in P/H
• Frescoes people eating and drinking
• Triclinium specific dining room for banqueting (wealthy houses)
o Outdoor Triclinium House of the Moralist
Three stone couches and marble topped table
• Fast food – Thermopolia serving of ready-cooked food
o Penelope Allison
• Villa Murecine
o Inn
o Contained 5 triclinia
o Large kitchen area large bench for food preparation
52
Describe clothing in P/H
• Limited archaeological evidence mostly from artistic representations of wealthy
• Statue of Marcus Nonius Balbus: men wore toga, knee-length tunic unlikely worn all the time
o Purple stripe on toga Equestrian class
• Women: Statues at Villa of Papyri, stola and palla
o Statue of Eumachia
Stola, sleeveless tunic marital status
Palla worn outdoors
• Toga praetexta Magistrates
• Frescoes of women and men
53
Describe health in P/H
• Surgical Instruments Penelope Allison
o People performed high-level first aid
• Archaeological investigation of Estelle Lazer
o Studied 300 skulls people well nourished
o Decay of teeth caused by grindstones in flour
o HFI post-menopausal women
• Archaeological remains of baths and toilet
• Butterworth & Laurence: Tuberculosis and malaria common diseases
54
Name three rooms inside of a bath house.
* Trepidarium = Warm room
* Caladarium = Steam room
* Fridgedarium = Cool room
55
Baths in P/H
* Archaeological evidence of baths
* Social and leisure activity
* Hot baths thermae
* Julia Felix had own baths for “elegant and respectable people”
* Public complexes
* Wealthy homes didn’t have baths
* Warm room > steam room > cold room
56
Baths in Pompeii?
Forum Baths, the Stabian Baths, the Central Baths and the Amphitheatre Baths
• Stabian Baths
o Largest baths in Pompeii
o Hypocaust: furnaces heated boilers sent hot water into pipes baths
o Floors and rooms heated by hot air circulated by pipes and flues
57
Baths in Herculaneum
Forum Baths and Suburban Baths
• Forum Baths
o Skeletons found in men’s dressing room safety from eruption
• Suburban baths
o Inscription baths donated by Marcus Nonius Balbus
o Plunge pool in Trepidarium
58
Water Supply in P/H
```
• Remains of Aqueducts
o Water entered water tower and flowed to different pipes by gravity
o Pompeii Ran to 42 Public fountains
o Herculaneum 3 Public Fountains
o Ran to some wealthy houses
o Pipes made from lead
o Drainage better in Herculaneum because of steep slope
• Fountains
```
59
Sanitation in P/H
Healthy place
Public latrines (toilets) in forum, baths and palaestra
One or two toilets in house
No toilet paper sponge or stick for cleaning
60
Public Buildings 'Basilicas'
o law courts
o government and legal proceedings
o raised platform when duumvir acted as judges
o Contract signings
61
Public Buildings 'Temples'
```
o Temple of Isis
Greek fluted columns
Lararium
Only building completely restored after earthquake in AD62
o Temple of Venus
Corinthian temple
overlooks sea
o Temple of Apollo
Constructed 2nd century BC
Hellenistic and Italian (staircase) styles
```
62
Public Buildings: Fora
o Herculaneum yet to be excavated buried underneath Resina
o Two forums in Pompeii centre for trade
Civic Forum
• 40m wide and 150m long
• 40 statues of powerful families
• Within or adjoining forum Temple of Jupiter, Temple of Apollo, Basillica
63
Types of Forums in P/H
Civic Forum
- Triangular Forum
• 95 Doric columns surrounded three sides
• Included Samnite temple = Eldest temple
64
Public Buildings 'Theatres'
o Pompeii (2nd century BC) 5000 people
o Herculaneum (1ST century AD) 2000 people
o Small theatre Odeon 1300 people
Music recitals and meetings
o Sectional seating
Lower rows magistrates and rich
Middle rows middle class & average citizens
Top rows women
o Entertainment free but required tokens
o Fires and other special effects
65
Public Buildings 'Palaestra'
```
o Soldiers and gladiators exercised
o Greek influence
o Provided shade and open space for athletes
o Two in Pompeii
o One in Herculaneum pool and fountain
```
66
Public Buildings 'Amphitheaters'
```
o Only Pompeii
o Approx. 20000 people
o Stalls set up outside
o Games beast hunts, gladiatorial contests, athletic displays (painted notices)
o Awning provided shade
o Water sprinkled to keep audience cool
```
67
Private Buildings 'Villas'
| Detail the Otium Villa's
```
Built for leisure
Multi-storey buildings
Subterranean portico
Expansive gardens, water displays, thermal baths, larger swimming pools
Villa of the Papyri (Herculaneum)
• 1800 papyrus rolls Philodemus (poet/philosopher)
• 245 x 137 metres (MASSIVE)
• Peristyle 36 columns
• Baths
• Grand gardens
• 87 statues animals, gods, athletes
```
68
Private Buildings: 'Villas' detail the 'Villa Rusticae'
```
Villa built on land agricultural production
Partially excavated
Villa Regina (Pompeii)
• Courtyard surrounded by porticoes
• Large kitchen in centre
```
69
Private Buildings: Houses
o Incorporated both residential and commercial facilities e.g. House of Stephanus fullery
o Atrium-peristyle house wealthy
o Natural light illuminated rooms in wealthy
70
What's an Atrium?
Large central room, foyer of the house.
71
What's an impluvium?
Small pool to catch rainwater.
72
Whats a Tablinium?
Branched off the atrium, reception room, where master would receive clients.
73
Peristyle?
Outside garden
74
Triclinium?
Dinning Room
75
What's a Tabernae?
shop attached to house.
76
What's a Lararium?
household shrine
77
House of Faun (Pompeii)
* Named after bronze statue of dancing faun
* Alexander the Great mosaic
* Fresco found flora and fauna along Nile River
* Cover entire insulae
78
House of the tragic poet (Pompeii)
* Named after mosaic in Tablinium actors performing Greek drama
* Atrium image of Zeus and Hera
* Peristyle imaginary garden scene on wall
* Peristyle fresco of sacrifice of Iphigenia
79
House of the Vettii (Pompeii)
* Named after Vettii brothers
* Peristyle with fluted Doric columns
* Atrium fresco of fertility God Priapus
* Well-preserved lararium
80
Shops, Tabernae examples...
o Fullery of Stephanus e.g. of shop with house
o Asselina’s Inn (Pompeii)
o Bakery of Popidius Priscus (Pompeii)
81
Religion in P/H
o Polytheistic
o O’Connor official religious practices more public and those who seeked religious life were attracted to cults
o Worship of Capitoline Triad Jupiter, Juno and Minerva (Temples in the Forum)
o Unity within community
o Jupiter: protector of the state
o Juno: protector of women o Minerva: patroness of craftsmen
o Apollo: God of oracles and light
o Venus: god of love patron goddess of Pompeii
82
Whats the Capitoline triad ?
Jupiter, Juno, Minerva
83
Temple of Isis?
Greek fluted columns
Lararium
Only building completely restored after earthquake in AD62
84
Temple of Venus?
Corinthian temple
| overlooks sea
85
Temple of Apollo?
Constructed 2nd century BC
| Hellenistic and Italian (staircase) styles
86
Household gods?
o Protect household
o Lararium: household shrine where Lares were worshipped
Niche dug out to place statues of household Gods
House of the Vettii well-preserved Lararium
o Sometimes frescoes substitutes for statues of Gods
o Statues dressed in country style original protectors of farms
o Penates: protectors of stores and food
o Offerings: wheat, fruit, eggs
o Rituals conducted by pater familias
87
Foreign Cult: Bacchus/Dionysius
Greek God of wine and fertility
Offered communication with God and promise of blessed life after death
House of Vettii and Villa of the Mysteries Dionysius rescuing Adriane
Very popular – Livy spread “like a contagious disease”
Government did not approve
88
Foreign Cult: Isis.
Egyptian influence
Zamarti: introduced through foreign prostitutes
Worship shrine in Julia Felix’s garden
Appealed to women role as mother and wife
Annual festivals navigation of Isis and Isra
89
Talk about Tombs.
o Illegal to bury dead within town
o Large number of tombs along roads leading to Herculaneum, Nucerian and Nolan Gates
o No tombs uncovered at Pompeii
o Bodies normally cremated some buried
o Ashes collected in terracotta/glass urns and buried
o Pater familias: ensured deceased received proper burial rites
o Failure to be buried properly – spend eternity as evil person
o Funeral Rites
Conclamatio: relatives gathered and call out name of deceased
Women prepared body for burial/cremation wash and rub with oils
Body placed in atrium non-relatives to pay respect
o Funeral processions: musicians and professional mourners
90
Tomb of the Istacidii Family
Owners of Villa of the Mysteries
Large funerary chamber
Statues of prominent family members
91
Tomb of Mamia
Priestess of Venus
Semi-circular tomb
Funded by town council
92
Before today's world how did archeologists deal with P/H?
* “Haphazard”: - lack organisation
* Few records – inaccurate
* Findings taken out of context
* Stopped digging at AD 79
* Maiuri: produced living museum and ‘told a good story’
* 1950/1960’s – Pompeii neglected
* Individual archaeologist – not working in teams
93
Archeologist methods today at P/H
```
• Moratorium “stop” of excavation
• Conservation
• Reconstruction
• Systematic
• Advanced multidisciplinary teams/experts
- architects
- chemists
- osteologists
- volcanologists
- conservators
• Focus on Pre-Roman and before
AD79
• Emphasis on documenting
• Resource management
• Implementation of new technologies
e.g. iPads
• Have to prove why they want to excavate
```
94
Giuseppe Fiorelli contributions to Understanding of P/H?
```
• Uniform numbering and naming system
- excavated buildings/houses
- divided Pompeii into 9 insulae
• Plaster casts of victims
- revealed impressions of humans, animals and furniture
• Top down excavation
- less damage to walls and evidence
• Systematic and careful excavation
- according to plan
- did one insulae at a time
```
95
August Mau contributions to understanding P/H?
* Classified frescos into four decorative styles
| * Date range for buildings by dating the fresco
96
Vittorio Spinazzola contributions to understanding P/H
```
• Excavated Via dell’ Abbondanza
- revealed shops, taverns
• Reconstructed balconies and upper stories
• Used photography to record findings
• Discovered Fullery of Stephanus
```
97
Estelle Lazer contributions to understanding of P/H
* Research on skeletal remains Pompeii
| * Challenged assumption that majority of volcano victims were women, children, elderly and disabled
98
Impact of New research: The Pompeii Forum Project...
Began in 1988 Lead by Professor of Roman art and archaeology at University of Virginia Produce more accurate plans and elevations of the surveying remains
To recover architectural and decorative remains that were deteriorating
99
The Pompeii forum project, action? impact?
Produce more accurate plans and elevations of the surveying remains Maps used to stimulate discussions about Pompeian urbanism among scholars
100
Impact of New research: Herculaneum conservation project.
2000 - funding
2001 - start excavation and construction Packard Humanities Institute - America
Getty Conservation Institute
Wallace Hadrill Halt serious decay, maintain on a sustainable basis
Sewerage
Help fund Italian government
101
Herculaneum Conservation Project: action, impact?
Restored ancient sewerage - drained to sea
Consolidation of structures
Employ falconers to address pigeon issue (refer to conservation issues)
Prevent further damage to Pompeii and Herculaneum
102
Impact of New Research: Insula of Menander Project.
Began 1978 British: led by Roger Ling Redress deficiencies in earlier records made by Amedeo Maiuri
103
Insula of Menander Project, actions, impact?
Three-stage analysis and documentation of whole insula
Stage 1: examine architecture and interior decoration
Stage 2: study interior decoration
Stage 3: examine loose finds We now have a better understanding of the Insula of Menander as a representation of ancient Roman life.
104
What are some issues of conservation and reconstruction?
Poor restoration, Damage from Vegetation, Environmental factors, Poor site protection/management.
105
Poor restoration work.
o Poor restoration work
Reconstruction work done lacks specialised knowledge
e.g. Timber room at the House of Meleager (Pompeii) poorly designed and collapsed
Spinazzola covered frescoes and mosaics with glass which creates moist climate deteriorates works
106
Damage from Vegetation.
Weeds invaded & create cracks in artefacts
107
Environmental factors.
Sunlight and rain cause frescoes to fade Roofs reconstructed
1980 Earthquake and frequent Earth tremors cause damage to ruins
Pigeon droppings acidic and continually peck at beams & doors
bird catchers (falconers) employed
108
Poor site protection/management
Pompeii & Herculaneum subject to looting frescoes from House of the Chaste Lovers (Pompeii) elsewhere in Italy
Bags not checked when entering and leaving promotes theft
Insufficient number of guards
109
Other issues in conservation?
Stray dogs roaming area most removed
| People allowed to eat within houses and buildings rubbish
110
Negative impacts of tourism?
flash photography damaging mosaics and frescoes
2.5 million tourists a year not big enough to hold that many people
2008: prompted superintendant Guzzo to declare ‘State of Emergency’
Theft: Fresco in House of Chaste Lovers found elsewhere in Italy
Touching of artefacts lead to deterioration House of Vettii (Pompeii) closed off, House of the Gladiators (Pompeii) not open to public (now collapsed)
Allowed to eat food acid deteriorates artworks
111
Positive impacts of tourism?
Increased global awareness of ‘State of Emergency’
Famous people e.g. Charles Dickens visited site and published findings and emphasised devastating situation
Development of International projects e.g. Anglo American Project
Makes money for conservation and restoration work
112
Ethical Issues due to study and display of human remains.
o Vermillion and Tamaki Makaurau Accords (Codes of Ethics)
Show respect and compassion whilst trying to continue scientific research
Can gain insights into diets, life expectancy and predict future population trends
o No warning for visitors about to witness remains, which can cause sensitivities to certain cultures
o Controversial: display of bones
o Display of Herculaneum skeletons in Naples Museum more confronting than plaster casts in situ in Pompeii
o International Council of Museums: remains should be presented with skill and respect for human dignity
o Question of cultural property caused conflict between archaeologists, museums, art collectors and auction houses
113
The economy: trade
* Strabo: Pompeii was a trading centre for agricultural produce
* Pompeii: Played important role in economy of Campania
* Herculaneum: economy served local needs only
* Shipwrecks found
* Ancient writers (Pliny) wrote about wine and garum
114
Economy: Trading, what was imported and exported?
```
Imports:
• Tableware
• Wine
• Olive oil
• Garum
Exports:
• Garum
• Wine
```
115
Economy: What makes up commerce?
Shops, Markets, Temporary Stalls, Thermopolia.
116
Shops and commerce?
• Shops in the front rooms of Houses
a mason’s shop
a carpenter’s shop
117
Markets and commerce?
Macellum in Pompeii: meat and fish market
fish bones found
- dates regulated: evidence for planning and organisation in Pompeii
• Temple of Apollo: Mensa Ponderaria: measuring weights
118
Temporary stalls and commerce?
• Temporary stalls
sold shoes, vegetables, cloth, fruit
set up near Amphitheatre and Forum
119
Thermopolia and commerce?
• Thermopolia
dolia in counter stored food and drink, e.g. dried food: nuts, vegetables
- Problems with source: cannot be sure that dolia only held those types of foods
carbonised remains of nuts in dolium in Pompeii
120
Industry in Pompeii and Herculaneum?
• agriculture, wine and olive oil production: dominant
• cloth manufacture
Fullery of Stephanus: dying of clothes through urine
121
The wine industry?
* excavated farms, vines
* traces of production from vats and presses
* storage jars found with traces of wine
* transported wine in vast leather wine skin on a cart
122
Metal industry?
• Marble plaque (Pompeii)
o Reveals how objects were made and weighted
o Typical workshop in Pompeii
123
Occupations in Herculaneum and Pompeii?
```
• Beard: “More than fifty ways of making a living in Pompeii”
• Artisans
- artists, metal workers, potters
• Tradesmen
• Weaver
• Gem cutter
• Architect
• Pastry cook
• Wealthy merchants
• Bakers
• Bath attendants
• HOUSE OF VETTII FRESCO shows various occupations
o Wine making
o Fulling
o Perfumery
o Production of jewellery and large bronze vessels
```
124
Baker as an occupation?
• Much along Via dell’ Abbondanza
• More than 35 bakeries in Pompeii
• Process: milled the grain, baked the bread and sold it
o Powered by donkeys, mules and small horses, evidence: skeletons found chained to mills
• North east of Forum: 7 bakeries in 100 metres
• Bread sold in temporary stalls too
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Banker as an occupation?
* Lucius Caecilius Jucundus
| * In charge of transactions of money, evidence documents found
126
Garum Maker as an occupation?
* Aulus Umbricius Scaurus
* Pottery containers
* Mixed together pieces of seafood with salt and left it in a vat for a couple of months to ferment in the sun
* Large salt pans outside city
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Influence of Greek and Egyptian in Art?
o Influenced by Greek, Etruscan, Italian and Egyptian works
o Greek Mosaic battle of Alexander and Darius (House of the Faun)
o Egyptian Fresco of Nile River flora and fauna (House of the Faun)
o Poetry and philosophy Papyrus scrolls (Villa of the Papyri)
o Poetry found with lines from Homer
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Influence of Greek and Egyptian in Architecture?
o Columns:
Doric: House of the Tragic Poet
Ionic: Temple of Apollo
Corinthian: Peristyle courtyards in homes & Temple of Fortuna Augusta
o Triangular Forum in shape of Greek Acropolis
o Samnite House at Herculaneum
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Influence of Greek and Egyptian in Religion?
o Egyptian goddess Isis worshipped
Temple dedicated to her with frescoes asking for guidance
Fresco of Isis at Ceremony of Water worshipped at Herculaneum
o Greek god Dionysus worshipped
Bacchic scene in House of Dioscuri (Pompeii)
Frescoes found in Herculaneum
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Religion in Pompeii and Herculaneum?
o Polytheistic
o O’Connor official religious practices more public and those who seeked religious life were attracted to cults
o Worship of Capitoline Triad Jupiter, Juno and Minerva (Temples in the Forum)
o Unity within community
o Jupiter: protector of the state
o Juno: protector of women Capitoline Triad (J, J & M)
o Minerva: patroness of craftsmen
o Apollo: God of oracles and light
o Venus: god of love patron goddess of Pompeii
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1860 – 1875
19TH CENTURY
Contributions of nineteenth and twentieth century archaeologists?
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Giuseppe Fiorelli
• Uniform numbering and naming system
- excavated buildings/houses
- divided Pompeii into 9 insulae
• Plaster casts of victims
- revealed impressions of humans, animals and furniture
• Top down excavation
- less damage to walls and evidence
• Systematic and careful excavation
- according to plan
- did one insulae at a time
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1873 – 1909
19TH CENTURY
Contributions of nineteenth and twentieth century archaeologists?
August Mau • Classified frescos into four decorative styles
| • Date range for buildings by dating the fresco
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1910 – 1923
| Contributions of nineteenth and twentieth century archaeologists?
Vittorio Spinazzola • Excavated Via dell’ Abbondanza
- revealed shops, taverns
• Reconstructed balconies and upper stories
• Used photography to record findings
• Discovered Fullery of Stephanus
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1924 - 1961
| Contributions of nineteenth and twentieth century archaeologists?
Amedeo Maiuri • Excavation of Pompeii and attempts at restoration at Herculaneum
• Recreated atmosphere of interior houses
- put utensils in place
- restored walls and ceilings
• Believed necessary to dig below Roman levels
• Creation of guidebooks
• Excavated Villa of the Mysteries
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1990’s
| Contributions of nineteenth and twentieth century archaeologists?
Penelope M. Allison • Dr Penelope Allison: “I am interested in revealing the utilitarian side of life rather than its glamorous side."
• Recorded and analysed wall paintings of the House of Ancient Hunt
• Study of room contents of 30 houses in Pompeii
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Steven Ellis
| Contributions of nineteenth and twentieth century archaeologists?
* Conducted on site survey of Pompeii
| * Located 158 properties of food and drink outlets
137
1980’s Estelle Lazer
* Research on skeletal remains Pompeii
| * Challenged assumption that majority of volcano victims were women, children, elderly and disabled
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1980s Jaye Pont
• Focused on red slip pottery
• Used scientific and analytical techniques to identify where clay from, used in vessels
- findings suggest, majority from Bay of Naples
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The Pompeii Forum Project
The Pompeii Forum Project Began in 1988 Lead by Professor of Roman art and archaeology at University of Virginia Produce more accurate plans and elevations of the surveying remains
To recover architectural and decorative remains that were deteriorating
Produce more accurate plans and elevations of the surveying remains Maps used to stimulate discussions about Pompeian urbanism among scholars
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Herculaneum Conservation Project
Herculaneum Conservation Project 2000 - funding
2001 - start excavation and construction Packard Humanities Institute - America
Getty Conservation Institute
Wallace Hadrill Halt serious decay, maintain on a sustainable basis
Sewerage
Help fund Italian government Restored ancient sewerage - drained to sea
Consolidation of structures
Employ falconers to address pigeon issue (refer to conservation issues)
Prevent further damage to Pompeii and Herculaneum
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Via dell Abbondanza Project
Via dell Abbondanza Project 2004-2007 Jennifer and Arthur Stevens
Accurately record findings
Safely excavate the Via del Abbondanza Created photo mosaics of the total 900m
Compare to originals from 1910 - 1923
2005-2006 complete the surveying and half the photos
2007 - all photo mosaics finished Create record for future archaeologists
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Anglo- American Project
Anglo- American Project 2000-2012 Rick Jones
Damian Robertson Record and preserve what was in the region six insula 1 Documented the history of archaeological remains
Educated public
Worked on the House of the Surgeon, workshops and bars
Identified the earliest houses
Conservation education model - increase understanding of public
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Insula of Menander Project
Insula of Menander Project Began 1978 British: led by Roger Ling Redress deficiencies in earlier records made by Amedeo Maiuri Three-stage analysis and documentation of whole insula
Stage 1: examine architecture and interior decoration
Stage 2: study interior decoration
Stage 3: examine loose finds We now have a better understanding of the Insula of Menander as a representation of ancient Roman life.
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The Philodemus Project
The Philodemus Project UCLA
University of California, Los Angeles
Reconstruct Philodemus’ works on poetry, rhetoric and music
Found in Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum Texts published with translations Allows us to appreciate Philodemus’ works
145
o Italian Contributions
1997: policy, all tourist income put back into site
4 July 2008: declared Pompeii at ‘State of Emergency’, and allowed commissioner to oversee Pompeii and Herculaneum preservation and management
Venice Charter: outlines main ways in which sites should be conserved and restored
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o International Contributions
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Anglo-American Project
– (refer to table)
Herculaneum Conservation Project
– (refer to table)
UNESCO
– Expert advise to Italian government on ways to improve conservation
– Continually makes reports on sites
– 1997: declared World Heritage
– visited area in 2012
– ensures preservation work being completed
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