Post Midterm

Question 1

2 Paradigms for Conserving Populations

Answer 1

Focus on Small Populations:
Estimated Population over time
Measures effects of threats on population size
Use general models to estimate population viability or length of time to the potential extinction

Focus on Declining Populations:
Study populations to identify causes of decline
Try to fix it
Generalize to other populations and species

Question 2

Small Population and Declining Population Paradigms Comparison

Answer 2

Small Population:
Extinction due to low numbers, developed in the 1980s, from genetics & population ecology, strong theory, weak link to actuality

Declining Population:
Extinction due to external factors, traditional, from wildlife management, weak theory (rooted in empiricism), a strong basis in problem-solving

Small population needs more practical observation and declining population needs more theory

Question 3

How are populations measured? (3)

Answer 3

Conduct using repeatable methods
Establish variation over space or time
Methods are often taxon-specific
Birds: point counts, photography
Mammals: capture-recapture, hunter harvest
Fish: electrofishing, netting
Amphibians/Insects: drift fences, pitfall traps

Question 4

Approaches to monitoring (3)

Answer 4

Repeated census
Surveys by biologists and citizens
Traditional and anecdotal knowledge

Question 5

Why monitor populations (3)

Answer 5

Determine patterns and changes in distribution and abundance

Identify environmental correlates that might reveal: cause of population increase or decline, important and sensitive locations

Determine effects of population harvest, recovery plans or other management interventions

Question 6

Demographic stochasticity

Answer 6

Variation in fecundity and survival

Occurs in small populations

Question 7

Environmental Stochasticity

Answer 7

Variation in habitat quality
Occurs in all sizes populations
Natural catastrophes

Question 8

Genetic Stochasticity

Answer 8

Occurs in small populations

Genetic drift, inbreeding depression

Question 9

Species at Risk

Answer 9

Focus on biodiversity loss via extinction and hence protection
Tends to favour influential species: emotionally, politically and economically

Question 10

Population Viability Analysis

Answer 10

What is the probability of a species not going extinct
Theoretical Model : main tool of small population paradigm
The core tool of Endangered Species Act
Determine MVP (99% chance of survival for 1000 years)

Question 11

Sensitivity Analysis

Answer 11

Which life stage is the most sensitive to change

Question 12

Uncertainty Delays Action: what should be done about it (5)

Answer 12

Include human motivation as part of the system being studied

Act before scientific consensus is reached

Rely on scientists to recognize problems, but not to remedy them

Distrust claims of sustainability

Confront Uncertainty

Question 13

What does the acronym DUE mean?

Answer 13

Distinct, Useful and Endangered

Question 14

How are species at risk identified and designated

Answer 14

Done by the IUCN
Membership union (1 300 member organizations and 15 000 experts)
Address environmental law, protected areas, policy, education, management, communication
Publishes Red List of Threatened Species

Question 15

Red List Criteria (5)

Answer 15

A) Observable reduction in numbers of individuals
B) Total geographical area occupied by the species
C) Predicted decline in numbers of populations
D) Number of mature individuals currently alive
E) Probability the species will go extinct within a certain number of years or generations

Question 16

How to quantify red list criteria (5)

Answer 16

A) Surveys (observe a decline in numbers)
B) Minimum Dynamic Area (MDA)
C) Population Viability Analysis (PVA) - Life Table
D) Effective Population Size (Ne)
E) Minimum Viable Population (MVP)

Question 17

Living Planet Index

Answer 17

Published periodically by the World Wildlife Fund
Follows multiple populations >4000 vertebrate species
A simple count of individuals
Measures change from 1970
Supports use and contributions to monitoring by the public

Question 18

Listing Process in Canada

Answer 18

Step 1: General reports on wild species determine which species attract a commissioned status report

Step 2: COSEWIC committee of taxonomic experts assesses risk and identify a risk status; posts on the registry and sends to Minister of Environment

Step 3: Minister posts response (within 90 days); followed by consultation and analysis

Step 4: Recovery actions begin in accordance with Canada’s Species at Risk Act (SARA)

Question 19

What are the strategies to recover species ? (3)

Answer 19

SARA imposes mandatory recovery planning

1) Management Plan
2) Recovery Strategy
3) Action Plan

Question 20

In-situ conservation

Answer 20

Inside the original habitat

Question 21

Ex-situ conservation

Answer 21

Outside of the original habitat

Question 22

Focal Species for conservation

Answer 22

Indicator, Flagship and Umbrella species

Question 23

DUE criteria

Answer 23

Distinctiveness, Utility (culture, tourism), Endangered

Question 24

Types and Purposes of Conservation Translocations (4)

Answer 24

Introduce Novel species to perform particular ecological functions in new habitats or ranges (assisted migration)

Reinforce declining populations with important ecological functions or aesthetic appeal (head-starting vulnerable species)

Reintroduce populations of species that were extirpated (wolves in Yellowstone)

Garner support for broader conservation efforts (golden lion tamarin in brazil)

Question 25

What to avoid in translocations (4)

Answer 25

Ecological damage Conflict with people Introducing new diseases Causing extinctions of other species

Question 26

Swift Foxes

Answer 26

``` Extirpated in Canadian range Reintroductions from captive-reared foxes, and wild foxes from the US 942 released in 1983-1997 289 in 196-1997 656 in 2000 ```

Question 27

IUCN Guidelines for reintroduction programs (7)

Answer 27

Understand and manage threats Understand the ecology of species Understand genetics of both species and released individuals Ensure there is enough viable habitat (minimum dynamic area required to support genetic exchange and adaptation) Assess and account for ecological risks Address human concerns

Question 28

Characteristics of successful reintroductions (5)

Answer 28

``` Herbivores reintroduced to excellent habitat in the core of their historic range sourced from wild-born population Introduced in groups that know each other released with ongoing support ```

Question 29

Connected populations are less likely to go extinct because? (4)

Answer 29

Rescue by other individuals Less inbreeding depression More capacity to adapt to change Less stochasticity (demographic or environmental)

Question 30

Four Areas of Biology: 4 Questions

Answer 30

Two Objects of Explanation: Developmental/Historical (a sequence that results in the trait) and Single Form (the trait one slice at a time) Two Kinds of Explanations: Proximate (explains how organisms work by describing their mechanisms and ontogeny) and Evolutionary (explains how species came to its current state) 4 Questions: Ontogeny (DP): How does the trait develop in individuals Mechanism (SP): What is the structure of the trait and how does it work Phylogeny (DE): What is the phylogenetic history of the trait Adaptive Significance (SE): How have variations in the trait interacted with environments to influence fitness in ways that help to explain the traits form

Question 31

Conservation Physiology

Answer 31

Using physiological factors to assess how animals are affected and how to best protect them

Question 32

Conservation Behaviour (4)

Answer 32

Wildlife Management: reserve design, human-wildlife conflict, response to stress, introduced species Species Decline: reduce bycatch, reestablish breeding populations, boost reproduction Assess Biodiversity: census and monitoring Reintroductions: mate choice, social structure and head-starting

Question 33

Solutions for Human-Wildlife Conflict (6)

Answer 33

``` Remove problem animals Barriers - fences and guard dogs Improve Education- zoos, public campaigns Land Use - change crops, remove garbage Compensation Spatial Analysis ```

Question 34

Reintroductions -- things to keep in mind (3)

Answer 34

Genetics - small population problems Ecology - fit to the environment Behaviour - adaptation to captivity

Question 35

IUCN Protected Area Designation (6)

Answer 35

``` Strictly Protected (I-IV): Strict Nature Reserves - I Wilderness Area - II National Park - III Natural Monument or Feature - IV ``` Multi-Use, Larger, Sustainable Use: Protected Seascape/Landscape - V Protected Area with sustainable use of resources - VI

Question 36

Short History of Protected Areas (7)

Answer 36

1880s: John Muir's Preservationist Ethic, First National Parks 1920s: Wise-use Movement, resource extraction expands, multi-use 1960s: Silent Spring, awareness of pollution of air, land, water 1970s: Island Biogeography promotes the theory of Reserve Design 1990s: Increasing awareness of functional connectivity 2000s: Increasing sophistication of measurement 2010s: Increasing emphasis on ecological functions

Question 37

Five Steps for Preserving Ecosystems

Answer 37

Establish individual protected areas Create networks of protected areas Manage networks effectively Implement conservation outside of protected areas Restore biological communities in degraded habitats

Question 38

Shafers 11 Rules of Reserve Design

Answer 38

``` Ecosystem completely protected Larger Reserve Unfragmented reserve More reserves Corridors maintained Stepping-stones facilitate movement Diverse habitats protected Reserve shape closer to round A mix of small and large reserves Reserves managed regionally Human integration buffer zones ```

Question 39

Idealized Reserve Design (3)

Answer 39

Maintain large core areas Enhance connectivity among them Prevent population sub-division

Question 40

Gap Analysis

Answer 40

One of the first uses of GIS in conservation biology Overlay biological characteristics with protection status to identify gaps in coverage Requires excellent census information

Question 41

Common management problems in protected areas (5)

Answer 41

Displacement of people (social and economic problems) Poaching (by displaced people) - resentment of protected area Trophy Hunting - can encourage the removal of animals Human-Wildlife conflict - shared space with carnivores, humans as predator shields Degradation - via infrastructure, recreation

Question 42

Types of non-protected conserved areas

Answer 42

``` Military land Unprotected: Public forests Public grasslands, grazing reserves Public waterways Undesirable areas Private Land ```

Question 43

What is ecological integrity?

Answer 43

Retains ecological composition, structure and function

Question 44

Natural Disturbance Model

Answer 44

Copy natural disturbance using landscape-level management Patch size, disturbance frequency Environmental impact Assessment and mitigation

Question 45

Countryside biogeography

Answer 45

Demonstrated lack of predictive capacity of reserve design rules; proposed alternative to island biogeography Repeatedly find that isolated fragments in agricultural matrices can retain a surprisingly high # of species Applications to many similar landscapes (urban areas, rangelands)

Question 46

Reconciliation ecology

Answer 46

Promote human-dominated landscapes Emphasize human domination of most landscapes Look for new ways to increase biodiversity in them Strive to generate benefits to people and other species Accept limits of preservation and protected areas Manage urban-exploiting, hyper-abundant species

Question 47

Systematic Conservation Planning (6)

Answer 47

Compile data on the biodiversity of the planning region Identify conservation goals Review existing conservation areas Select additional conservation areas IMplement conservation actions Maintain the required values of conservation areas

Question 48

Yellowstone to Yukon Conservation Initiative

Answer 48

Began in 1992 by Canmore conservationist, Harvey Locke Provide functional connectivity for grizzly bears between Yellowstone and Yukon Identify and secure strategic locations for partnership Inclusive, multi-use cooperative protection of landscapes

Question 49

Restoration Ecology

Answer 49

Tends to occur after ecosystems are highly degraded Typically cannot recover full ecological functions Often promotes one, particular species, community or ecological function

Question 50

Stages in Restoring a degraded habitat (3)

Answer 50

Step 1: Requires physical-chemical modification to restore abiotic conditions Step 2: Requires biological modification to restore biotic conditions and prevent invasive species Step 3: Requires improved management, taking into account fungal, soil bacteria and pollinators

Question 51

Resilient Ecosystems

Answer 51

The capacity of an ecosystem to recover from disturbance | Ecosystem services meet the needs of the local people

Question 52

What characteristics make ecosystems more resilient (4)

Answer 52

1) Latitude: how much can an ecosystem be impacted before it loses its ability to recover 2) Resistance: How difficult is it to change an ecosystem 3) Precariousness: How close is the ecosystem to its limit or threshold 4) Panarchy: How much is the level of an ecosystem influenced by other levels? How isolated are individuals in a community from the rest of the population

Question 53

Environmental Mitigation in BC

Answer 53

Avoid impacts minimize impacts Restore ecological values and components Offset residual impacts: like-for-like, trading up Monitoring commitments - implementation, effectiveness, compliance

Question 54

Sustainability (4)

Answer 54

Sustainable development at the local level Conservation at the national level International approaches Funding

Question 55

Economic Development (3)

Answer 55

Improved Efficiency, organization, distribution of resources Not necessarily economic growth -- increase in resource consumption Assumption -- infinite growth (but the planet is finite)

Question 56

Sustainable development (5)

Answer 56

Economic development without loss of biodiversity Resource use is voluntarily limited by the availability Susceptible to greenwashing Triple bottom line: Social + environmental + economic Full-cost of accounting -- direct and indirect costs

Question 57

The social cost of externalities disproportionately paid by:

Answer 57

Less powerful individuals Less powerful countries Future generations

Question 58

Social-Ecological Systems (4)

Answer 58

Systems of biophysical and social factors that interact in a resilient, sustained manner Defined at several spatial, temporal and organizational scales Natural, socio-economic and cultural resources regulated by ecological and social systems Adaptable, dynamic and complex

Question 59

Approaches to Sustainability (3)

Answer 59

``` Local/Regional: Regulations Protected areas with restricted use Incentives for conservation (leasing, concession, banking) Land trusts, easements, covenants ``` National: Acts (SARA, Migratory Birds, EPA) National Protected Areas Nationally managed lands International

Question 60

Sustainability on the Local Scale

Answer 60

Land Trusts -- land owned and managed by nonprofit organizations Conservation easements/covenants -- partnerships between landowners and the land trusts or governments Limited development -- incorporating natural areas in development planning Conservation leasing -- pay landowners to protect biodiversity Conservation banking -- credits to landowners/industry to preserve habitat Payment for ecosystem services Conservation concessions -- outbidding industry for use of land

Question 61

International conferences on sustainability

Answer 61

UN conference on the human environment (1972) World Commission on Environment and Development (1987) UN conference on environment and development (1992) General assembly special session on the environment (1997) World summit on sustainable development (2002) UN conference on sustainable development (2012) Paris climate accord (2015)

Question 62

United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (Rio Summitt 1992)

Answer 62

Rio declaration -- nations can use their own resources as long as other nations don't suffer (polluter pays) United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change -- reduce greenhouse gases Convention on Biological Diversity -- protect biodiversity, sustainable use, share benefits of genetic resources Agenda 21 -- Linked environmental problems to child welfare, poverty, gender issues, wealth inequality and mechanisms to implement plans

Question 63

International Agreements that we should know (6)

Answer 63

Convention on Biological Diversity -- promotes the conservation of biological diversity, sustainable use, and equitable sharing of benefits Convention on International trade in Endangered Species (CITES) -- Ensure that trade in animals and plants do not threaten their survival Convention on the Migratory Species of Wild Animals -- Provides guidelines for the conservation and sustainable use of migrating animals throughout their ranges Ramsar Convention on Wetlands (RCoW) -- Promotes the conservation and sustainable use of wetlands and their resources that contribute to both biodiversity and human wellbeing International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture -- Promotes the conservation of plant genetic resources and the equitable sharing of the benefits that arise from them World Heritage Convention (WHC) -- Mandates the identification and conservation of the world's cultural and natural heritage by protecting a specific list of sites

Question 64

How is conservation funded in developing countries (3)

Answer 64

Governments -- World bank, global environment facility Private donations: INGO's: World wildlife fund, the nature conservancy, etc Environmental trust funds Debt-for-nature swaps Combinations: Forest Alliance + WWF + world bank

Question 65

Four criteria for Conservation Programs

Answer 65

Concern: Donors and recipients both genuinely want to solve the problem Contracts: fair contracts can be made and enforced, fund will not be lost to corruption Capacity: Ther are enough facilities, people, skills, and equipment to achieve intended work Causes: The original causes of the conservation problem have been addressed

Question 66

Strategies for Sustainability (3)

Answer 66

Environmental Impact = Population + Affluence + Technology Affluence -- reduce consumption Population -- reduce fertility (educate women, birth control) Technology -- solutions (renewable energy, carbon capture)

Question 67

2019,2021 Climate Emergency Declaration (6)

Answer 67

Energy: eliminate fossil fuels and shift to renewables Short-lived air pollutants: greatly reduced black carbon, methane and hydrofluorocarbons Nature: restore and permanently protect the earth's ecosystem to store and accumulate carbon and restore biodiversity Food: Switch to mostly plant-based diets, reduce food waste and improve cropping practices Economy: Move from indefinite GDP growth and overconsumption by the wealthy to ecological economics and a circular economy, the price reflects the full environmental cost of goods and services Human Population: Stabilize and gradually reduce the population by providing voluntary family planning and supporting education and rights for all girls and young women, which has been proven to lower fertility rates

Question 68

Issues with Organic Farming (8)

Answer 68

Environmental impact and emission -- sometimes higher Nutrient Leaching -- eutrophication, acidification Land Use -- more land needed Pesticides -- natural is sometimes more toxic Food quality and safety -- more variable Soil conservation -- more erosion, imported materials Biodiversity -- variable effects Opposition to labour standards -- sometimes

Question 69

Problem 1: Describe and Monitor Biodiversity

Answer 69

Biodiversity is not even described, let alone monitored Solution: Train more systematics and invest in monitoring programs

Question 70

Problem 2: International Cooperation

Answer 70

Difficult to coordinate across international borders and impossible to enforce Solution: Increase awareness of local people of problems and the need for action.

Question 71

Problem 3: Developing countries trade-off biodiversity protection and needed resource development

Answer 71

Solution: Provision of technical and financial support from the government and NGOs in developed counties via multiple mechanisms payments for ecosystem services

Question 72

Problem 4: Economic analyses overlook or underestimate the negative effects of projects on biodiversity

Answer 72

Solution: Develop tools to apply full-cost accounting and track effects on the triple bottom line; increase use of polluter pays principle and end perverse subsidies

Question 73

Problem 5: Disadvantaged people trying to survive are often blamed for destroying biodiversity

Answer 73

Solution: Increase integration with humanitarian groups to support conservation goals that also provide economic gains for local people (fair trade systems)

Question 74

Problem 6: Protected area designation and management may exclude and alienate local people

Answer 74

Solution: | Provide local people with information and involvement in the design and management of the protected area

Question 75

Problem 7: Revenues associated with protected areas may not be shared with local people that are displaced by them

Answer 75

Solution: Increase opportunities for training, employment and revenue sharing in association with protected areas Use revenues to fund local needs

Question 76

Problem 8: Protected areas in developing countries often lack sufficient budgets to protect areas effectively

Answer 76

Solution: | Increase admission rates to offset the real cost of maintenance, differential fees according to the type of visitor

Question 77

Problem 9: Many species at risk occur on private land or land already designated for resource extraction

Answer 77

Solutions : Change laws and expectations in developed countries to require better support from associated ecosystems, integrate biodiversity protection with resource extraction

Question 78

Problem 10: In many countries, governments are inefficient and bound by excessive regulation

Answer 78

Solution | Leverage action by citizen groups and ENGOs which can often help implement new policies or directions

Question 79

Problem 11: Businesses, banks and governments may be uninterested in conservation issues

Answer 79

Solution Educate policymakers and others about the benefits of conservation, lobby governments directly, understand variation among cultures

Question 80

Challenges for Conservation Biologists (3)

Answer 80

Incorporate biodiversity protection into economic policy Increase the protection of the area and slow endangerment of species Act with the greatest urgency for species with the greatest need