Post question review Flashcards
1
Q
Reason for infants brown fat cells quantity
A
Infants cannot shiver at cold temperatures to maintain body heat. so their brown fat releases heat due to inefficient use in ETC.
2
Q
Reflex Arc
A
Most are known as polysynaptic and are represented by a sensory neuron, then Interneuron, then Motor neuron
Some are known as monosynaptic and represented as just a sensory and motor neuron.
3
Q
Types of experimental studies
A
Case control study: Two different groups are compared on basis of attribute
Experimental study: in which subjects are randomly assigned treatment vs no treatment
Cohort study: one or more profiles are examined for a particular characterstics
Cross-sectional study: Categorizing patients into different groups to asses for a prevalence.
4
Q
why doctors test for a primitive reflex
A
Check for neurological disorders
Mark milestones for proper development
The reflexes generally disappear on a schedule.
5
Q
Neural crest cells differentiate into?
A
Melanocytes dentin thyroid thymus adrenal medulla Chain ganglia Peripheral nerves Glial cells (
6
Q
Fornix
A
links hippocampus to the rest of limbic system
7
Q
dominant hemisphere functions
A
Complex voluntary movement
arithmetic
audio processing
8
Q
How layers in epidermis of skin
A
4 and some areas have 5
- stratum basale
- stratum spinosum
- stratum granulosum
- stratum lucidum ( only found in “thick” skin areas with no hair)
- stratum corneum
9
Q
REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep
A
- a.k.a Paradoxical sleep
arousal is high( composed of beta EEG waves) - EEG readout displays uninterrupted alpha waves
- Muscles are paralyzed
- 75% of dreams occur
- Implicit memory consolidation
10
Q
SWS sleep
A
stages 3 and 4
low frequency waves known as EEG synchrony
high voltage waves
Growth hormone release.
Memory consolidation
Mostly found at beginning of sleep cycle.
Disruption is bad for memory, mood ,and problem solving.
11
Q
Thick ascending limb of loop of Henley
A
active reabsorption solute since body and urine are isotonic to each other.
Cytosol has extra mitochondria for this energy purpose. the mitochondria also make the cell thicker.
12
Q
Penetrance
A
the probability of expression of a trait within an individual who possess the allele.
13
Q
heritability
A
the percentage of variation the can be accounted for genetically.
14
Q
Freud’s psychoanalytic theory
A
concerned with the ways that early childhood experiences couple with certain universal instincts shape personality
- Postulated Libido (sex drive) is present at birth; accounted for staged psychological processes.
- Oral stage (0 to 1): Libidinal energy centered on the mouth, fixation can lead to excessive dependency
- Anal stage (1 to 3): Toilet training occurs during this time, fixation can lead to excessive orderliness or messiness
- Phallic stage (3 to 5): Oedipal or Electra conflict is resolved.
- Latency stage (5 to 13): Libido is largely sublimated
- Genital stage (13 to 18): Begins at puberty; if previous stages have been successfully resolved , the person will enter into normal heterosexual relationships.
15
Q
Skinner’s behaviorist theory
A
concerned with OPERANT CONDITIONING and other environmental influences on personality (i.e money as reward for a certain behavior)
focuses on the role the environment plays in shaping human behavior.
16
Q
Social cognitive theory
A
idea that people learn central behaviors by observing others
Albert Bandura experiment is an example.
17
Q
Trait theory
A
link genetic and personality
18
Q
stage 1 sleep characteristics
A
- irregular, low frequency, high voltage theta waves
- Mild hallucinations
- hypnogogic jerk (twitching).
19
Q
Types of defense mechanism
A
- Repression: unconscious forgetting.
- Suppression: conscious forgetting.
- Regression :reverting to earlier stage of development.
- Projection: attributing undesired feelings to others.
- Reaction formation: An unacceptable impulse is transformed into its opposite (i.e A gay guy tries to show that he’s straight)
- Rationalization: justification of behavior.
- Displacement: transferring of undesired urge from one person to another (i.e somebody making you mad, then you take it out on someone else innocent.)
- sublimation: transformation of unacceptable ages not socially acceptable direction.
20
Q
Null Hypothesis
A
a hypothesis of equivalence which state that there is no difference between groups examined.
21
Q
Parathyroid hormone
A
- Raises plasma calcium levels
- Promotes resorption of bone at high levels; activating osteoclasts in-order to grow new stronger bone.
- Activates vitamin D
22
Q
Calcitonin
A
reduces plasma calcium levels
23
Q
Red skeletal muscle fibers
A
- maintain high amounts of myoglobin, hence red color
- slow twitch fibers
- Resistant to fatigue
- Able to utilize aerobic and anaerobic respiration
24
Q
Intramembranous ossification
A
occurs to form flat bone of the skull
- skull bones DONT have an epiphyseal plate or cartilage at all.
25
Epiphyseal plate
Region of cartilaginous cells separating the shaft of the long bone called the diaphysis, from its two dilated ends, called the epiphyses.
Its located at either end of long bones.
Site of long bone growth.
26
Hydroxyapatite
- Inorganic portion of bone
| - Composed of calcium (Ca++), Phosphate(PO4-), and hydroxide ions(OH-).
27
Volkmann's canals
The channels that contain ORGANIC material such as blood vessels, nerve fibers, and lymph vessels that maintain bone health.
28
Vitamin D
-promotes resorption of bone
29
Endochondral ossification
formation of long bones
30
Osteons
- basic unit of compact bone
| - composed of Haversian and volkmann canals, canaliculi, lamellae(concentric circles), lacunae, osteocytes.
31
contraction of smooth muscle processes.
- Phospholipase C is activated after substance binds a smooth muscle receptor.
- Inositol triphosphate (IP3) causes the release of calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
- Myosin kinase interacts with calmodulin and calcium to phosphorylate light chains of myosin.
32
Sinoatrial (SA) Node
- produces myogenic activity
- the pacemaker of the heart
- endocrine system (epinephrine) affects heart rate
- vagus nerve slows heart rate.
33
Disruptive selection
occurs when two extreme phenotypes are selected over the norm.
34
Penetrance
- a given genotype who actually expresses the phenotype or NOT AT ALL
35
Expressivity
-a given genotype who have different levels of phenotype expression (i.e tall genotype but individuals have different heights).
36
K-Complexes
characterized by a drastic drop in voltage of an EEG.
37
Paradoxical sleep
describes how EEG during REM sleep is similar to that of a person who is awake.
38
speciation
- rise of a reproductively distinct species.
| - result of disruptive selection and reproductive isolation
39
Recognition-primed decision model
- a kind of educated intuition when making decisions.
| - ability to recognize a pattern when faced with decision making during complex situations.
40
Phonology
- same word pronounced differently.
- only component of language that is altered when pronounced in different ways
- meaning is preserved.
41
Howard Gardner's multiple intelligence
- linguistic (highly valued in western culture)
- logical-mathematical (highly valued in western culture)
- musical
- visual-spatial
- bodily-kinesthetic
- interpersonal
- intrapersonal.
42
Darwin's Theory
- FItness = Reproducibility success
| - chance variation that give survival advantage is favorable and heritable
43
modern synthesis model
Genetic Inheritance and gene pool changes.
44
Differential Reproduction
Favorable mutation Is more likely to pass on to next generation.
45
inclusive fitness
organisms success by number of offspring, ability to support offspring.
46
Punctated equilibrium
evolutionary changes occurring in rapid bursts instead of evenly over time ( contrast w/ darwinism)
47
Modes of natural selection
stabilizing selection
directional selection
disruptive selection
48
stabilizing selection
preference for the normal and not the extreme phenotypes
49
directional selection
prevalence of one of the extreme phenotype over the other
50
disruptive selection
Prevalence of both ends of extreme phenotypes
51
Patterns of evolution
divergent (development of dissimilar traits) , parallel, and convergent (development of similar traits.)
52
Availability Heuristics
likely hood based on imagined scenarios and not stereotypes
53
inductive reasoning
using specific examples to create broader generalizations
54
sleep cycle changes in a healthy adult
SWS predominates early in the night, then REM predominates later in the night.
55
Arcuate fasciculus
- connects Broca's are to the Wernicke's
- used in process of repeating something that has been said.
- loss of arcuate fasciculus causes conduction aphasia.
56
Nativist Theory of language acquisition
innate ability using LAD to pick up language
Credited to Noam Chomsky
57
LAD (language acquisition Device)
Pathway in the brain allowing infants to absorb and process language.
58
Learning Theory of Language acquisition
operant conditioning to pick up language.
credited to B.F Skinner
59
Social interactionist theory of language acquisition
desire to communicate in social manner; infants pick up language
60
Language Acquisition Theories
Nativist
Learning
Social Interactionist
61
Self-Fulfilling prophecy
a prediction that causes itself to become true due to positive feedback between belief and behavior.
62
Ethnocentrism
judgment that one own's culture is superior based on beliefs.
63
whorfian hypothesis
Our perception of reality is determined by the content of language
Language has influence on cognition.
64
Rapid eye movement (REM)
Paradoxical sleep, arousal is high (composed mainly of beta EEG waves), muscle are paralyzed, 75% dreams occur, implicit memory consolidated
65
Night terrors
occur during SWS and exhibit SYMPATHETIC system overdrive
66
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
- posits the inability to measure exact position/orbit radius and momentum of electrons SIMULTANEOUSLY.
- This is caused by the limitations inherent in the measuring process: if a particle is moving, it has momentum, but trying to measure that momentum necessarily creates uncertainty in position .
67
Quantum numbers
```
if..
n = 2
l = 1 or 0
ml = -1 or +1 if... l = 1
ms = +1/2 or -1/2
```
if...
n = 4
l = 3,2,1, or 0
ml = 2
68
Maximum # of electrons in sub shell
4l + 2
69
Maximum # of electrons in single energy level
2n^2
70
frequency equation
f = c/𝛌
71
Pauli exclusion Principle
Assumes that each electron has an intrinsic spin of +1/2 or -1/2 the differentiates it from any other electron that can occupy the same orbital.
Therefore no two atomic electrons can have the same four quantum numbers or otherwise they would be occupying the same space.
72
First Quantum Theory
- By Planck
| - E=hf
73
Bohr model
L=hn/2pie , E = -R/n^2
Angular momentum of an electron is directly proportional to its principle quantum number
The energy of that electron increases exponentially with the principle quantum number.
* R is Rydbergs constant*
* n is shell number*
74
Which electron orbit is expected to have the lowest energy, according to Bohr?
n=1
hence the equation: E = -R/n^2
The energy of that electron increases exponentially with the principle quantum number.
75
Balmer series
the wavelength emitted when an electron falls from an energy level greater than 3 down to 2nd energy level. (i.e 4 to 2.. or 5 to 2... or 3 to 2)
the only series that emits visible light
76
atomic radius factors
number of valence electrons
| number of electron shells.
77
four properties of metals
malleable
low electronegativities
valence electrons move freely
very dense; high melting point.
78
Transition metals
- capable of forming more than one ion (fe2+ or fe3+)
| - can form hydration complexes with water which increases its solubility within the solvent.
79
effective nuclear charge, Zeff
- strength with which the protons in the nucleus can pull on electrons.
- i.e if there are more protons than electrons; high Zeff
- i.e if there are Less protons than electrons; low Zeff
- its equal to # of valence electrons (i.e Zeff of calcium is 2... or Zeff of sulfur is 6)
80
what is the highest-energy orbital of elements in the n=3 shell.
d-orbital
81
Metalloids
shiny
brittle
semiconductive
82
Reaction formation
- Defense mechanism
| - An unacceptable impulse is transformed into its opposite
83
Type 1 error vs Type 2 error
Type 1 is that we incorrectly reject the null hypothesis while type 2 error is that we fail to correctly reject the null hypothesis
84
Controlled Processing
Technique for active memorization of information
85
Discrimination
the process by which two similar but distinct stimuli produce different responses.
86
Latent Learning
Learning something without a reward, but the act is demonstrated once the reward is introduced.
87
Associative learning
- includes classical conditioning and operant conditioning
| - creating a connection between two stimulus or stimulus and response.
88
transition metals
have different possible charged forms, or oxidation states
- association with water (hydration complexes)
- associates also with nonmetals.
89
Recognition
- identifying information that was learned.
90
amygdala
- stores the memory of emotion (implicit memory)
91
Long term potentiation
converting short term into long term memories by increasing neurotransmitter release.
- two ways: Elaborate Rehearsal and practice.
92
chacolgen
group16 on periodic table.
93
escape learning
behavior to reduce current unpleasantness (e.g taking aspirin)
- example of negative reinforcement
94
Erik Erikson (psychosocial) theory
- Unlike Freud’s theory, mastery of a stage is not required but individual will lack the skills
- Trust and mistrust stage (0 to 1): Can I trust the world
- Autonomy vs. Shame and doubt (1 to 3): is it okey to be me?
- Initiative vs guilt (3 to 6):Is it okay for me to do, move, and act?
- Industry vs Inferiority (6 to 12): Can I make it in the world of people of things?
- Indentity vs. Role confusion (12 to 20): Who am I? What can i be?
- Intimacy vs isolation (20 to 40): can I love ?
- generativity vs stagnation (40 to 65): can i make my life count?
- Integrity vs despair (65 to death): is it okay to have been me?
95
poor procedural (implicit) memory
- individual cannot learn new tasks / skills
| - Typical of AD patients.
96
Long term declarative memory
- reffered to as explicit memory
| - includes: semantic and episodic
97
Electrical potential energy
U = kQq/r
98
factors that can be the cause of confabulation ( creating false memories)
- misinformation effect
| - source-monitoring error.
99
Source monitoring
keep track of where various information came from
100
Misinformation effect.
a person's recall of episodic memories becomes less accurate because of post-event information.
101
Source amnesia
memory error of the details by confusing the context by which they were gained.
102
Hippocampus
- encodes ONLY declarative memory.
103
Korsakoff’s syndrome
Thiamine (TPP, B1), retrograde and anterograde amnesia, confabulation (creating false memories)
- typically found in alcoholics or malnourished individuals.
104
7 ± 2 rule
notion that short term memory is limited in capacity to approximately 7 ± 2 items
105
alkali metals
- React violently with water
| - Malleable, ductile, shiny, conductive.
106
Retrieval cues
- context effects: same location; concerned with external state of the individual.
- priming: related words
- state- dependent effect: mentality during encoding; concerned with internal state of the individual
- serial poison effect: position within a list of items
- primacy and recency
107
Bond length
- decreases with increasing electronic bonds between atoms which also correlates with higher bond energy.
- decreases when moving to the right of periodic table because the more electronegative atoms have shorter atomic radii.
108
what is a hydrogen bond
Electrons in a disproportionately shared bond to a hydrogen that causes partial charges.
109
Noble gases
- Entirely uncharged
- do not have polar covalent bonds, ionic bonds, or dipole moments
- ONLY bonds experienced are London dispersion forces. which are necessary for condensation in to liquids.
110
Coordinate Covalent bond
Bond between Lewis base and Lewis acid. ( i.e H2O and H+ or NH3 and H+)
111
when combining 2 in phase orbital what forms?
Bonding orbital
112
when combining 2 out of phase orbitals what forms?
Antibonding orbital
113
When combining a bonding orbital and 2 non-bonding p orbitals what forms?
1 sigma bond and 1 pie bond.
114
When combining a bonding orbital an 4 non-bonding p orbitals what forms?
1 sigma bond and 2 pie bonds.
115
The order of weak to strong bonds
Pie bond → sigma and single bonds → double bonds → Triple bonds
116
Breathing: Exhalation
- External Intercostal muscle + diaphragm relax → chest cavity volume ↓ → intrapleural pressure increase → lung air exhalation.
- Internal intercostal muscle + abdominal muscles speed the process during exercise.
- Lungs are indirectly connected to chest wall through pleurae.
117
why is RNA more reactive that DNA
because of the additional Hydroxyl especially in alkaline conditions.
118
Regulation of breathing
- Hypercapnia (excess CO2 in blood) and hypoxemia (low blood O2) results in increased respiration rate
119
deleterious effects of smoking
increased coughing
less functioning cilia
epithelial destruction
increased Respiratory infections.
120
Henry's law
Partial pressure and concentration of a gas are directly proportional.
[A] / P = [A]' / P'
As pressure increases, solubility of gas increases
121
Exothermic Reactions
(heat functions as product) reactions moves toward reactant when increasing temp
122
Endothermic Reactions
(heat functions as reactant) reactions moves toward product when increasing temp
123
formation of diol
From aldehyde: Oxygen from water must act as a nucleophile to attach the electrophilic carbonyl carbon.
124
nucleophilic substitution (Sn1 / Sn2)
..
125
attribution theories vs cognitive appraisal
Attribution theories focus on other peoples behavior.
Cognitive appraisal: a self evaluation that characterizes our own behavior.
126
Geminal diols
- They always contain two alcohol groups on the same carbon
| - When made from carbonyls, the carbonyl carbon is electrophilic.
127
Extraversion
degree to which an individual is able to tolerate social interaction and stimulation
128
Introversion
people who are more reserved, less outspoken, tend to enjoy solitary activity and avoid overstimulation
129
Psychoticism
aggressiveness and social deviance.
130
Residual Volume / capacity
volume left after a FORCED expiration.
A.k.a dead space in the lungs that remains unchanged.
131
Functional Residual Capacity (FRC)
volume left in the lungs after NORMAL exhalation
132
Obesity lowers the functional residual capacity (FRC) of individuals. what spirometry measurements will change
With the normal amount of air left reduced, this means the decrease either has to be directly to the expiratory Reserve volume or Residual capacity. OBESITY CAUSES A DECLINE IN ERV. Residual volume, however, corresponds to dead space of air in the lungs and remains unchanged.
133
Behavioral perspective on personality / behavioral development
- result of behavior responses to stimuli based on prior rewards and punishments.
- B.F Skinner
134
Social cognitive perspective on personality development
- Interactions between an individual and his or her environment.
- Albert bandora
135
Increasing boiling point between :
Acetal
Hemiacetal
Geminal diol
Acetal < Hemiacetal < geminal diol
136
Kinetic and Thermodynamic enolates.
- only exist for ketones with two different alkyl groups.
137
Electric conduction of the heart
- SA node generates 60-100 beats per minute
- Once the impulse initiates, both atria contract
- Signal goes to AV node and waits for ventricle to fill
- Signal then goes from bundle of His and purkinje fiber to ventricular muscle.
- Intercalating discs in the muscles allow for coordinated contractions
138
cohort study
studies that begin by sorting subjects into groups based on differences, then follow up to asses for health outcomes.
139
spleen
- Location for filtrating aged RBCs
| - site of B-cell maturation and proliferation (humoral immunity)
140
Expansion differences between arteries and veins
Veins will expand to a larger degree than arteries because of thinner walls and lesser amount of smooth muscles
141
Elasticity differences
Arteries will be more elastic due to smooth muscle density
142
ΔG = 0
when the system is at equilibrium
i.e Keq = 1.... Q = Keq
143
drive reduction theory
people do things because they need to reduce internal and external disturbances.
144
Downward Drift hypothesis
schizophrenia causes a decline in socioeconomic status.
145
Types of discriminations
- Individual : One person discriminating against another person
- Institutional: One group/ institution discriminates against a person.
146
ADH
- controls water reabsorption
- increased ADH levels leads to excess water in body.
- will increase volume but decrease osmolarity
147
upstroke vs downstroke of action potential
- Upstroke is A.K.A depolarization
| - Downstroke is A.K.A repolarization
148
Reaction quotient
- if Q < Keq, then the forward reactions not yet reached equilibrium and △G < 0
- if Q = Keq, then the reaction is in dynamic equilibrium △G = 0
- if Q > Keq, then the forward reaction has exceeded equilibrium and △G > 0
149
capillary has?
- A higher hydrostatic pressure at the arteriole end and a lower hydrostatic pressure at the venule end.
- A higher osmotic pressure in its blood plasma that the osmotic pressure of the interstitial fluid bathing the tissues.
- A hydrostatic pressure that results from the beating of the heart.
150
erythrocytes
DONT HAVE ORGANELLES, ONLY HEMOGLOBINS.
151
when is Kinetic enolate favored
- during fast, irreversible reactions
- using sterically hindered bases
- At low temperatures (-78 celsius)
- The double bond forms at the LESS substituted alpha carbon.
152
When is thermodynamic enolate favored
- during slower, reversible reactions
- using weaker and smaller bases
- At normal temperature (25 celsius)
- Product is always MORE STABLE than kinetic products..
- The double bond forms at the MORE SUBSTITUTEDAlpha carbon
- THis reaction would occur before kinetic enolates are formed
153
Effects of △H, △S, and T on spontaneity.
- if +△H and +△S then spontaneous at high T
- if +△H and -△S then Non spontaneous at ALL T
- if -△H and +△S then spontaneous at ALL T
- if -△H and -△S then spontaneous at low T
154
Region of DNA that gets Methylated
- Promoter
- Enhancer
- Cytosine in CpG dinucleotides.
155
Purpose of using a base in aldol condensation
to remove the alpha-hydrogen of an aldehyde or ketone to create the nucleophile enolate.
156
Dalton’s Law of partial Pressures
- Considering ideal gases, a vessel containing different molecules, each gas will produce its own pressure.
- Partial pressure: pressure exerted by each individual gas.
- Dalton’s law of partial pressures: total pressure of a gaseous mixture is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the individual components.
- PTotal= PA + PB + PC + PD… etc
- PA = XA*PT :considers mole fraction
157
Factors that increase or decrease membrane potential
A: If the SODIUM channels are inhibited, sodium cannot enter, and the cell potential will DECREASE over time. (< -70mV)
B: If the POTASSIUM channels are inhibits, potassium cannot exit, and the cell potential will INCREASE over time. (> -70mV)
158
sodium-potassium pump
- pump 3 sodiums out and 2 potassiums into the cell
| - each time having 1 less positive charge ; decrease in overall membrane potential
159
sodium-potassium pump
- pump 3 sodiums out and 2 potassiums into the cell
- each time having 1 less positive charge ; decrease in overall membrane potential
- creates a charge distribution of positive extracellularly, and negative intracellularly.
160
The inhibitors used such as competitive, noncompetitive, Uncompetitive, and mixed are all Reversible inhibitors so when addressing an irreversible inhibitor through experiment, remember that non of the ones listed apply.
..
161
Kohlberg's theory of moral development.
- Pre-conventional phase (preadolescence): based on
rewards and punishments
- Obedience: avoiding punishment
- Self interest: rewards
- Conventional Phase (Adolescence): based on
relationship
to society
- Conformity: obedience through internalization or identification
- Law and order: social order
- Post-conventional phase (Adulthood): based on abstract principles
- Social contract: greater good.
- Universal human ethics:
abstract principles.
162
Graham's law of diffusion and effusion
- During diffusion or effusion of molecules, heavier gases move slower than light ones because of their lower average speeds even though they might have the same Temperature.
- root-mean-square speed equation shows it.
- effusion is movement of gas particles under pressure from one compartment to another thought a small opening.
163
B lymphocyte production and maturation
Occurs in the Bone Marrow.
- This would also be the site of detecting immature ones.
164
Stigma
- disapproval of people perceived as a deviant
- the disapproval can change over time.
- Labeling theory: labels given to these people can cause change where to fit societal expectations or for the worse (i.e a whore becomes more of one or she can become a “saint” or and ex-convict acts as a criminal)
165
Deviance
- any violation of a norm / rules
- varies in severity (i.e jaywalking vs Whores)
- Differential association theory: deviance can be learned through interactions with others.
- A person can become deviant if they interact more with deviant ‘others’ than with normal ‘others’ (fallen into the wrong group)
- strain theory: a natural reaction, such as deviance, to the disconnect between social goals and social structure (i.e “American dream to all” is social goal vs inequality is social structure)
166
which hormone stimulates the parietal cells to release hydrochloric acid
gastrin
167
Which cells secrete pancreatic juice
Acinar cells
168
brush border enzymes vs carbohydrates
They break down maltose into glucose.
169
study factors that prove causation
- having a control group or any variable can be manipulated.
| - with out this there is no proof of a definite stipulation;
170
Facts of strong electrolytes.
- dissociate nearly completely into their ionic components
- good conductors of electricity in their aqueous form
- poor conductors of electricity In their solid form.
171
Facts of strong electrolytes.
- dissociate nearly completely into their ionic components; large Ksp
- good conductors of electricity in their aqueous form
- poor conductors of electricity In their solid form.
172
alter- casting
- Alter-casting: Imposing an identity onto another person.
I.e: you are the doctor...
i.e You are the student...
173
Impression Management Strategies
- Self disclosure: Giving up info to establish identity
- Managing appearance: Using props, or associations with other to create a positive image. (I.e white coat, NIH internship)
- Ingratiation: Flattery to win someone over.
- Aligning actions: Excuses for bad outcomes.
- Alter-casting: Imposing an identity onto another person.
174
Raoult’s Law
PA = XAPA
- Applied during Vapor pressure depression.
175
Unimolecular substitution
a.k.a Sn1
substitutes electronegative atoms for OH-
would be favored in TERTIARY carbons since carbocations are more stable when the carbon is tertiary but can also be used in secondary depending on a polar protic solvent
176
Bimolecular Substitution
a.k.a Sn2
substitutes electronegative atoms for OH-
would be favored in PRIMARY carbons but can also be used in secondary depending on a polar aprotic solvent
177
Grignard reagents
add carbon lengths to a carbonyl containing molecule
178
Properties of the Law of Mass Action
- pure solid and liquid are expressed in equilibrium ratio
- the equilibrium constant, Keq, is temperature-dependent
- The larger the value of Keq , the farther to the right the equilibrium position; favors formation of complex ions and increases solubility
- The reverse of Keq is 1/Keq
179
Bureaucracy
Officials earning power due to previous service and the use of laws to create rigid procedures, privileges, rights , and responsibilities.
180
Properties of the Law of Mass Action
- pure solid and liquid are expressed in equilibrium ratio
- the equilibrium constant, Keq, is temperature-dependent
- The larger the value of Keq , the farther to the right the equilibrium position; favors formation of complex ions and increases solubility of insoluble ions
- The reverse of Keq is 1/Keq
181
Ka variables
Only strong acid will have a Ka greater than 1
Only weak acid will have a Ka less than 1
182
iron law of Oligarchy
a system naturally shifts control to an elite group
183
Aggression factors
- Biological : Interpreted and defined by Amygdala, Inhibited by prefrontal cortex.
- Hormonal: stimulated by testosterone, alcohol.
- Situation and psychological: accounted for by Cognitive Neoassociation model which states that we are more likely to respond to others aggressively whenever we are feeling negative emotions. (i.e tired, sick, frustrated, pain)
- Other’s behaviors: bobo doll experiment
184
if a lesion occurred to the right optic tract... results?
inability to see the left visual field on both eyes.
185
false positive
an error in data reporting in which a test result improperly indicates presence of a condition
- Used in terms of Hypothesis testing.
186
signal detection theory
making inferences from data involving decision-making in the light of uncertainty.
4 possible outcomes:
- Hit:
- False Alarm:
- Miss
- Correct Rejection:
187
gate theory of pain
the body prefers other signals from the touch modality (such as temperature or pressure) before pain.
188
gate theory of pain
the body prefers other signals from the touch modality (such as temperature or pressure) before pain
in other words, non painful input closes the "gates" to painful input; prevent pain sensation.
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Ruffini endings
detect stretching of the skin.
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ENCODING OF MEMORY
- visual encoding *weakest**
- acoustic encoding
- semantic encoding *strongest* because of the ability to use ‘self-reference’ effect.
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RETRIEVAL OF MEMORY cues
- context effects: same location; concerned with external state of the individual.
- priming: related words
- state- dependent effect: mentality during encoding; concerned with internal state of the individual
- serial poison effect: position within a list of items
- primacy and recency
Recency effect is a result of later words on the list remaining in working memory, but intervening tasks reduce real of these words.
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Maintenance rehearsal a.k.a repeating something over and over.
used to primarily keep information in short-term memory.
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Incentive Theory
seeking reward and avoiding punishment
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Opponent Process theory
Opponent-process theory states that color vision occurs because of the opposing responses of three sensory receptor complexes (red-green, blue-yellow, and black-white). (i.e staring at a red image then looking at a blank surface, you'll see green, etc)
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Theory of mind
Ability to understand the thinking patterns of others.
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upon ovulation the oocyte is released into?
abdominal cavity before pulled into fallopian tube by fimbrae.
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Two atomic orbitals may combine to form:
- A bonding molecular orbital
- An anti bonding molecular orbital.
- Hybridized Orbitals.
* When atomic orbitals combine, they form molecular orbital. When two atomic orbitals with the same sign are added heat-to-head or tail-to-tail, they form molecular orbitals. When two atomic orbitals with opposite signs are added heat-to-head or tail-to-tail, they form antibonding molecular orbitals.. Atomic orbitals can also hydribize, forming sp3, sp2, or sp orbital.**
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Molecular orbitals can contain a maximum of:
two electrons with opposite signs
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Cornea
is responsible for gathering and focusing light
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Iris and Pupil
Regulate the amount of light coming into the eye.
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Different between Endolymph and Perilymph
Endolymph is is the potassium rich fluid that bathes the hairs of the inner ear and found in the membranous labyrinth
Perilymph is found in the space between the membranous and bony labyrinth/ wall of the cochlea in-order to cushion structures and transmit vibrations from the oval window to to round window.
* Note: Both of these labyrinth contribute to the cochlea and the vestibule.
* Depolarization of the hair cells is by potassium movement from the endolymph to inside the cells causing a conduction.
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Top-Down Processing
Relies on recognition and expectation
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Bottom-up Processing
Relies on analysis of each detail.
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Hearing pathway past the Auditory nerve
Superior Olive → Inferior Colliculi →Medial Geniculate Nucleus → Temporal Cortex
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somatosensation input
Provides info about LOCATION and MOVEMENT of our body in space.
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Otolith organs
Detects gravity and acceleration
composed of utricle and saccule
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Semicircular canals
Detects head rotation.
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Monocular cues
Linear Perspective ( lines appear to converge (i.e interstate hwy)
Height in Place l(ower objects appear closer)
Relative size (larger objects appear closer)
Interposition (overlapping creates depth)
Light and shadow (illusion of 3D images)
Texture gradients.
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Stereopsis
The perception of depth that arises from the integrated information received from both eyes.
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p value
denotes the likelihood of finding a difference if there is no difference between the groups.
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Alpha-D-glucopyranose vs Beta-D-glucopyranose
They are examples of anomers.
They are also known as epimers because anomers are a special case of epimers and also realize that the anomeric carbon has switched in stereochemistry.
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Beta-amylase
- more precise than alpha.
- cleaves at the ACETAL END of polysaccharide to produce MALTOSE
- hydrolyzes 1-4 linkages in amylose
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Alpha-amylase
- cuts polysaccharides RANDOMLY to produce SHORTER POLYSACCHARIDES
- hydrolyzes branches in amylopectin
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HIll's criteria
Describes the components of an observed relationship that increase the likelihood of causality within that relationship
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what triggers the formation fo neural tube
Mesodermal cells and notochord.
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what triggers the formation fo neural tube
Mesodermal cells and notochord.
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Partial Report Procedures
In which an individual is asked to recall a specific portion of the stimulus, are incredibly accurate, but only for a very brief time. This is a method of studying sensory (iconic) memory.
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state- Dependent effect
MENTALITY during encoding; concerned with internal state of the individual
- *WHAT IS IN YOU*
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Binocular Cues
Convergence: both eyes working together to create a single image that helps determine depth.
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scotopic Mesopic and Photopic vision
Photopic vision occurs at levels of HIGH LIGHT
Mesopic vision occurs at DAWN and DUSK and involved RODS and CONES
Scotopic vision occurs at levels of VERY OW LIGHT
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Organ of corti
the membrane in the cochlea that is made up of basal membrane, tectorial membrane, hair cell (stereocilia)
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Data Distribution between Normal, Positive, and Negative skews
- Normal: Exemplifies a symmetric distribution; mode = median = mean
- Positive: Exemplifies a graph with results sloping downward to the right; Mode < Median < Mean
- Negative: Exemplifies a graph with the results sloping upward to the right ; Mode > Median > Mean.
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Peptide Hormone vs Steroid Hormone Half life
Peptide Hormones have shorter half life.
The fact that steroid hormones bind albumin in blood plasma, makes it harder for it to be destroyed or excreted.
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Schwann cells
Responsible for myelination of cells int he PNS
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Temporal summation
Postsynaptic neuron requires multiple stimulating events from A SINGLE presynaptic neuron in order to fire.
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Spatial Summation
single Postsynaptic neuron requires stimulation from MULTIPLE presynaptic neurons.
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PTSD vs Panic disorders
They both have a very similar symptom presentation but the difference is whether there was a tramatic event involved or not.
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Geminal diols
They always contain two alcohol groups on the same carbon
When made from carbonyls, the carbonyl carbon is electrophilic.
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Remember that Restriction Enzymes recognize palindromic sequences of DNA, Meaning that the 5' to 3' sequence of one strand is identical to the 5' to 3' sequence of the antiparallel strand.
For example:
5'--- GGACTCTAGAGTCC--3'
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Difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic DNA replication.
DNA polymerase gamma replicates mitochondrial DNA only in Eukaryotes.
Prokaryotes utilize only one origin of replication, while eukaryotes utilize many origins of replication.
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Because Prokaryotic DNA is circular
- NO Telomeres
| - ONE origin of REPLICATION.
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shRNA
Used in RNA interference to target mRNA to be degraded in cytoplasm.
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How can a mutation can occur in exons and introns and there be a normal protein
If in exons, A silent mutation at the "wobble" position would express a normal protein
If in intron, They are excised either way so a mutation there wouldn't make a difference.
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limitations of A spirometer cannot be used to determine the total lung capacity because it cannot measure it accurately
- cannot be used to determine the total lung capacity because it cannot measure it accurately
- cannot measure Residual volume
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When pneumothorax occurs
Intrapleural pressure increase and the DIAPHRAGM is pushed downward.
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what organ in CNS manages respiratory drive
medulla oblongata which has chemoreceptors that are sensitive to HIGH LEVELS of CO2 or LOW LEVELS of O2; but CO2 is most responsible for respiratory drive by CNS
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Muscle flexion during inhalation
External intercostals and Diaphragm
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Muscle flexion during exhalation
Internal Intercostals and Abdominal muscles.
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what organ in CNS manages respiratory drive
medulla oblongata which has chemoreceptors that are sensitive to HIGH LEVELS of CO2 or LOW LEVELS of O2; but CO2 is most responsible for respiratory drive by CNS in normal conditions
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A galvanic cell is
an electrochemical cell that converts chemical energy into electrical energy via an oxidation-reduction reaction. This reaction occurs spontaneously, and Eocell is a positive value.
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A concentration cell is
a type of galvanic cell in which ions diffuse across a membrane, creating a potential. Because concentration is the driving force behind electron transfer, the standard potential of a concentration cell is positive whereas the concentration is different between the two compartments of the cell until it reaches equilibrium.
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A fuel cell is
a type of galvanic cell whose reactants are continuously supplied at the anode and cathode, and whose products are continuously removed from the system. Although outside material is continuously supplied to the fuel cell, its reaction is still spontaneous, meaning that the Eocell is positive.
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How sympathetic nervous system affects digestion
Slows down peristalsis, decreases blood flow to intestines, and decreases water reabsorption.
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key features of fatty acids in eukaryotes
- Presence of EVEN number of Carbons
| - Double bonds are present as CIS and NOT TRANS.
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Genetic drift vs Natural selection
genetic drift allele frequencies change by chance, whereas in natural selection allele frequencies change by differential reproductive success.
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Golgi apparatus
- Packages, modifies(phosphorylation, carbs, signal sequences, lipidation, etc), and distributes cellular products.
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Times of use of GTP
- Protein Translation
- GCPRs
- Gluconeogenesis
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A test cross
the cross of an organism with an unknown dominant genotype with an organism that is homozygous recessive for that trait
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A double cross over
involves two recombination evens. The net result is that a middle portion of each chromosome is exchanged, while the ends remain the same.
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striate cortex
part of visual cortex that precesses visual information as its the first to receive information from Lateral Geniculate Nucleus
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Social Support methods
- Categories: MINEE
- Emotional support
- Listening, affirming, empathizing.
- Esteem support
- Affirming qualities and skills of a person to build confidence.
- Material support
- A.k.a tangible support, financial or material contribution
- Informational support
- Information that will help someone (i.e doctors offering diagnoses and treatment options)
- Network support
- One that gives a sense of belonging.
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Classical conditioning
any associative learning that is naturally UNCONDITIONED
