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British Empire > Post WWII Decolonisation? > Flashcards

Post WWII Decolonisation? Flashcards

1
Q

relation between policy of appeasement and empire

A

Chamberlain’s policy hoped that Hitler wouldnt join up with Italy and Japan who would threaten British colonies
The Hoare-Laval pact (1935) sought to placate Italians and officials and sought for ways to placate the Japanese
Appeasement of German demands in Central Europe was better than appeasing the other two aggressors whose interests effected colonial holdings

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2
Q

What was Singapore base?

A
  • Britain had built a massive base there, costing 25m

- They believed it would defend Singapore, which was a key spot between the Suez and Australia

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3
Q

What happened to Singapore?

A

In Feb 1942, Br surrednered Singapore where 130k Commonwealth and Br troops were taken

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4
Q

Effect of Singapore loss?

A
  • Esp for NZ and Australia very worrying ; Australia minister said to Chine ‘this prestige has been completely shattered’
  • Australia and NZ lived in fear of the ‘Yellow Peril’ and so turned to US for help
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5
Q

What did the fall of Singapore mark?

A

The first of many Br disasters in the East
Within weeks Japan had secured Hong Kong and invaded Malaya where they sunk the Prince of Whales and the cruiser, Repulse, in a few minutes

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6
Q

Imperial WWII contribution?

A

-Contribution was greater than WWI: in 6 years Br raised 6m domestically, dominions gave 2m, India gave 2.5m, colonies gave 500k
Britain relied on colonies’ food, materials and manufacturers
-War proved to Churchill than the bonds ‘that unites us…are stronger than the tensest steel’

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7
Q

Impact of WWII on Britain’s relations with superpowers?

A

Roosevelt’s meeting with Churchill, and subsequent signing of the 1941 Atlantic Charter, tried to shift imperial agenda from colonial control to consistent devolution

  • Charter encouraged self-government/sovereignty for colonies
  • Roosevelt not a fan of Empire but was placated by Cripps’ 1942 India Mission
  • Russians apathetic towards Empire
  • Br owed alot of money to US after war
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8
Q

What was the Lend-Lease Agreement/effects?

A

1941 agreement allowed America to lease supplies and arms to Britain and other allied countries
The cost of it amounted to 54% of Br’s total payment deficit during the war

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9
Q

How much did Br owe America after WWII?

A

4.4bn dollars

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10
Q

Impact of WWII on Br relations with dominons?

A
  • Canadian HoC declared themselves as unanimously in favour of participating
  • Australia and NZ felt dependent on British defence and so felt obliged to side with Britain but they lost faith post-Feb 1942
  • SA: Hertzog wanted to be neutral while Jan Smuts (who had some Br support) wanted to support the Brits; Hertzog resigned and Smuts’ government led SA to war, and Smuts interned a substantial no of Afrikaners to repress Nationalist Party who expressed support for Nazis
  • Irish FS remained neutral but some IRA elements flirted with Nazis. Ireland even allowed Britain to station observer corps around the Irish coast; Br dealt v carefully with Northern Ireland ie the province was exempt from conscription
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11
Q

Impact of WWII on Br’s relations with India?

A
  • Viceroy Lord Linlithgow, compelled india to war without consultation; loss of local good will
  • Muslim League was nonetheless prepared to support the effort and INC hated fascism deeply so wanted to seek independence while supporting war effort
  • But some Congress members in provinces resigned
  • To keep India loyal, Churchill seemed to accept inevitably of Indian independence
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12
Q

Growing nationalism in India during war?

A
  • Cripps Mission offering post-war independence and Congress’ rejection
  • Congress passed ‘Quit India’ in Aug 1942
  • With Jinnah leading, the Muslim League demanded ‘Divide and Quit’
  • 42k defectors to ranks of India National Army, led by Bose, supporting the Japanese against Britain in Burma
  • Discontent over lack of Br action during Great Bengal Famine (1943-44) which killed 3-4m Bengalis
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13
Q

Impact of WWII on Br’s relations with other colonies?

A
  • Middle East became swarmed with British battalions again- British troops resented locally
  • North Africa campaign had to be fought from Egypt, whose loyalty seemed always in doubt
  • Army rebellion in 1941 in Iraq- led to pro-Nazi coup… led to Br invasion of Iraq
  • Arab v Jew continuing
  • In Africa and Windies, black soldiers came back with new ideas; according to Commission in Gold Coast 1948, Africans had ‘developed a political and national consciousness’
  • Violent strikes on N Rhodesian copper belt in 1940
  • New bodies set up…eg National Council of Nigeria and Cameroons founded in 1944
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14
Q

WWII raising nationalism in Africa?

A
  • In Africa and Windies, black soldiers came back with new ideas; according to Commission in Gold Coast 1948, Africans had ‘developed a political and national consciousness’
  • New bodies set up…eg National Council of Nigeria and Cameroons founded in 1944
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15
Q

Economic impact of WWII?

A
  • Due to German U-boats, Br lost 11.7m tonnes of shipping (54% of Br’s merchant fleet strength in 1939)
  • Loss of key colonies in SE Asia cut of supplies eg rubber
  • Br’s balance of trade heavily in deficit during war
  • 1/3 of Br FDI sold fo rwar
  • Following Lend-Lease, Br had to make pound feely convertible to dollars by 1947 spring
  • If colonies were regarded as economically benefitial, now a new emphasis on pushing colonial economic policy
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16
Q

Colonial Development and Welfare Act of 1940?

A

Stopped colonial ‘self-sufficiency’
5m funded broad and ambitious projects in Africa
500k for research
BUT projects often mismanaged and emphasised tech that didn’t sit well with the local population

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17
Q

Eg of bad 1940 CDWA initiative?

A

In Uganda and Rhodesia, white settler projects discouraged small-scale agriculture

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18
Q

Colonial Development and Welfare Act of 1945?

A

Made 120m available for all purposes during 1946-56
No limits on research
Trusteeship- administrators would protect native interests
Required each colony to produce a 10-year development plan showing how it would use the funds

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19
Q

Analysis of Colonial Development and Welfare Act of 1945?

A

Betw 1946-51, 40.5m was distributed for improvements BUT DURING THE SAME PERIOD THE TREASURY INSISTED THAT 250M EARNED BY COLONIES FROM THEIR EXPORT LAND WAS TO BE DEPOSITED IN LDN
Lots of mismanagement
In the colonies there was a feeling that their economies were being manipulated solely to enrich Britain

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20
Q

Eg of bad 1945 CDWA intiative?

A

In Tanganyika, 40m fund (1/3 of entire fund!!!) gave Tanganyika 11k acres of tillable land
In Africa, agricultural improvements designed to combat soil erosion led to the culling of herds owned by Africans who couldn’t afford the losses

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21
Q

Post WWII India timeline

A

1945- Labour gov elected
1945- India elections= victory for ML and INC
Feb 1946- Indian navy in Bombay mutinies (came to involve 10k Indians in 66 different bases)
Aug 1946- violence erupts in Calcutta (muslim v Hindus, led by Jinnah), 6k dead and 20k injured. Congress sets up an interim government
20 February 1947- Atlee promises handover of power by June 18 1948 (worries about civil war)
1947- Congress agree with Cabinet re details of Partition
15 Aug 1947- official handover of power

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22
Q

What were the plans for Parition?

A

Atlee wanted a united India to be part of the Commonwealth
In 1946 a Br plan envisaged the 11 Indian provinces forming into groups, enabling the Muslim provinces to cluster together into a Pakistan

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23
Q

Who rejected Partition?

A

ML= not happy
They called for a direct election to achieve a united Pakistan
This led to the Aug 1946 violence in Calcutta

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24
Q

Who replaces Governor-General of India, Wavell?

A

Mountbatten

He believed Partition was the only way to prevent civil war

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25
Q

What did Partition not account for

A

560 princely states w/80m people and how they would be integrated

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26
Q

Effects of Br’s rushed withdrawal?

A

Led to inter-communal violence which led to 500k dead and 13m refugees

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27
Q

Decolonialisation of Ceylon summary?

A

Was a prosperous colony esp w exports of tea/rubber
Had an elected majority in Leg Council since 1923
Decolonisation occurred smoothly in Feb 1948- little media attention

28
Q

Decolonialisation of Burma summary?

A

Constant guerrila warfare
Burmese willing to cooperate with the Japanese when they overran the country in late 1942
Japanese set up an independent state under Burmese lawyer Aung San, who, in 1944, defected to Br and with Br’s 14th Army, recovered Burma in 1944-5
When Thatin Nu succeed Sun, Burma got given independence in Jan 1948
THEY DID NOT STAY IN COMMONWEALTH

29
Q

Decolonialisation of Malaya summary?

A
  • Very important supplier of rubber and tin so important
  • Before independence, Br had to deal w problem of Chinese communists
  • The Malayan National Liberation Army (ie the armed wing of Malayan Communist Party) attacked rubber plantations, police stations, derailed trains and burned workers’ houses
  • Malayans helped Br forces (40k) and helped expel them
  • Over 1.3k police killed, 6k communists killed
  • Aka ‘The Malayan Emergency’
  • After defeat, Malaya proceeded to independence under the pro-British Abdul Rahman
  • Aug 1957 became an independent state in Empire, enlarged by addition of Singapore, Sbah and Sarawak … became Malaysia (but Singapore opted out in 1965)
30
Q

Decolonisation of Singapore summary?

A
  • Had always enjoyed a lot of internal control re affairs
  • During 1948 it was given its own leg and exec councils - only Br subjects (10%) could vote though
  • Singapore gov struggled to contain communists; 2nd leader of the LW group, Yew Hock, who took over from the initially dominant conservative Singapore Progressive Party, impressed Br by taking strong stance against communists
  • Independence granted in 1958
  • Joined Malaya as Britain worried about communist influences BUT led to race riots betw Chinese v Malayans so Singapore left Malaysia in 1965
31
Q

Timeline of decolonialisation in Asia?

A 
1947- India
1948- Ceylon
1948- Burma
1957- Malaya
1958- singapore
32
Q

Labour gov attitudes to empire?

A

didnt trust trusteeship - it had been a sham in the past; economic development was limited and had not lead to the growth of viable national economies
was not under pressure decolonise Africa- believed it would take a while

33
Q

Conservative gov (51-59) attitudes to empire?

A

Conflict erupted violently in certain places- Malaya, Kenya, Cyprus, Suez
Not a reactionary gov- progress was slow and orderly
Where they would leave places, they would want to do it properly ie ensure their interests were protected, eg with rubber in Malaya

34
Q

Br views towards decolonialisation of East-Central Africa?

A

-didnt trust unpractised African politicians

35
Q

Early moves towards decolonialisation of EC Africa?

A

Federated 6 colonies into 2 groups which would contain one strong element (white settlement) and 2 weak, black ones
Never worked in north colonies or south
Europeans remained dominant

In Kenya a constitution was devised which allowed 50k Europeans to have the same no elected reps as 5m Africans, and greatly ountnumber them in council ministers
Administration of N Rhodesia and Nyasaland was shared by colonial officials and white settlers from S Rhodesia, despite every African resenting it
This sparked a powerful nationalist reaction BUT despite this, the British government did not stop backing a white federation

36
Q

Decolonialisation of Cyprus?

A

Insurgent campaign by the Greek Cypriot militant group (EOKA) to remove the British from Cyprus so it could be united with Greece
Both British and EOKA opposed by Turkish Cypriot group, TMT, who rejected union with Greek
State of emergency declared in Nov 1955
Britain found it difficult to find intelligence about EOKA as majority of Greek Cypriots supported them
Towards the end of 1950s, Britain enjoyed more success and they gain independence in 1960

37
Q

What led to the Suez Crisis?

A

Nasser refused to sign Baghdad Pact to repel Soviet threat in the Middle East, and completed an arms deal with Czecholsovakia in Sept 1955
Nasser also put pressure on Jordan’s King, Hussein, to remain out of the Pact. Hussien dimissed British military advisor in March 1956
Nasser recognised China in May 1956, angering the US

38
Q

What was the suez crisis?

A

Late July 1956- Nasser nationalised the SC in response to Eisenhower’s administration withdrawing funding for Aswan Dam after Nasser recognised China
Direct blow to the Br (owned 44% of the shares)
Nasser closedcanal to Israeli shipping and blocakded the Gulf of Aqaba, in contravention of the Constaninople Convention of 1888

39
Q

Why were Br worried/annoyed about Nasser nationalising the SC?

A

Owned 44% shares
Canal carried 2/3 of British oil from Persian Gulf
Eden, who was now PM, had called it the ‘swing-door of the BE’ in 1923

40
Q

How did Britain respond/cause the suez crisis?

A

Secret Anglo-French military discussions took place and in Oct Eden insisted that only the removal of Nasser could secure Br and Fr interests
Plan hatched that Israel would attack Egypt on 29 Oct and it would be followed by Franco-British invasion of the Canal Zone three days later to ‘defend it’

41
Q

Reactions to Br action?

A

Eden misjudged US reaction, immediately led the UN condemnation of Fr-Br actions
US refused to support sterling in the currency crisis which the war induced upon Britain
Britain announced ceasefire within 5 days
Eden forced to resign

42
Q

Results of suez crisis suggesting that it promoted decolonialisation?

A
  • Never would Br act alone without US consultaton
  • Suggested that if nationalist movements fought hard, Br could be forced to surrender
  • Embarassing loss of imperial pride/international status for Br
  • Led to sweeping defence reforms eg the end of National Service in 1957 which then had the effect of reducing Br’s ability to suppress colonial insurgents BUT ARGUABLY CHANGES BEFORE THE 1957 WHITE PAPER FOLLOWED FROM POLICY SHIFTS BEFORE SUEZ, EG UNPOPULARITY WITH ELECCTORATE
  • New PM Macmillan forced pace of decolonialisation- ‘Winds of Change’ 1960
  • Highlighted contradiction betw upholding sterling and funding military operations
  • Greater focus on Europe
43
Q

Counterarguments to results of suez crisis suggesting that it promoted decolonialisation?

A
  • The end to National Service anticipated long before
  • Greater focus on europe arose after SA’s exit from Ccommonwealth; in 1958 Whitehall acc proposed that colonial expenditure should be increased
  • The affairs intensified Br efforts for informal empire in Middle East- treaty releasing Kuwait in 1961 did not end Br interest there; Anglo-Jordanian ties remained stroong even with the sacking of Glubb in 1956; stayed in Eden (‘east of Suez’) til 1967 and not until 1971 did Br leave Persian Gulf
  • Decolonialisation forced by nationalism not SC
  • Tories still won election in 1958
  • As late as 1959, Colonial Sec, Lennox-Boyd, believed that independence for Kenya, Tanganyika and Uganda could be delayed til 1970s
44
Q

What provoked Mau Mau Emergency?

A
  • Kenyans annoyed that in 1948, Sir Peter Mitchell, Governor of Kenya, announced that self-government would not be possible in the forseeable future
  • Escalation of murders by Mau Mau in 1952: mostly Kikuyu on Kikuyu violence
45
Q

Was Mau Mau necessarily anti-imperial?

A

Both anti-imperial and a peasant revolt against Kikuyuku landed establishment

46
Q

What was the British reaction to Mau Mau Emergency?

A

They found it difficult to deal with guerrila warfare
State of emergency declared in Oct 1952, inc suspension of all black rights, and leaders- inc Kenyatta- imprisoned
Thousands of Br troops were taken into Kenya and Kikuyu villages were uprooted and relocated and they cut the Mau Mau off from sources of support in the White Highlands

47
Q

Who was Kenyatta?

A

In 1947 he had become president of Kenya Africa Union
KAU were banned after the Emergency
He was released in 1961 and began negotiations with British
Can be seen as moderate compared to the Land Freedom Army who conducted riots and strikes in the late 1940s

48
Q

When did Kenya gain independence?

A

Dec 1963

49
Q

How many died in Mau Mau?

A

Tortue used to force admissions of guilt
Between 1952-56, 11-12k people killed and 81k detained
Attrocities came to light after publicised incidents at Hola Camp where 11 inmates were killed
1090 Africans hanged in Kenya

50
Q

What did Mau Mau result in?

A

Lyttleton Constitution of 1954 which ruled out self-government for European community alone and gave one African and 2 Asians ministerial posts
In 1957 the Br allowed, for the first time, the direct elections of native leaders to the Leg Council and by 1960, Africans were a majority in this Council
KAU won majority of both houses of bicameral leg in 1963 and independence given in Dec

51
Q

First signs of Ghanian independence?

A

1946- Burns Constitution drawn up; bit more african representation (18 elected African nominees in legislative council) but still power in Br hands

52
Q

Reaction to Burns Constitution?

A

Unrest and a march at Accra where 2k Ghanians- inspired by leader Nkrumah- marched in Accra and ended up being fired on by the police
Led to riots with 10ks of people through city centre and 29 Europeans were killed

53
Q

what was the Watson Commision and what did it conclude?

A

Was assembled after the Ghanian violence, and recommended that Africans should be given a greater say

54
Q

Info about Nkrumah?

A

A Marxist
Founded Convention’s Peoples Party in 1949 and pressurised Br to make further concessions (Br did enlarge the Leg Council but still were paramount power)
He was arrested after 1951 General Strike, but CPP won 2/3 of seats in 1951 all the same
He was released soon after when Burns realised his symbolic importance to stop the unrest

55
Q

What happened in the 1954 Ghanaian elections?

A

CPP carried the election and Cabinet became completely CPP- Br become scared of prospect of African Burma
CPP dominance led to rural resentment and the forming of the National Liberation Movement led by Ashanti tribesmen and Accra farmers.
Ashanti v Nkrumah tensions led to delaying independence in order that Nkrumah could demonstrate he carried the support of the people

56
Q

When did Ghana gain independence? Why?

A

1957- Britain saw Nkrumah as a skilled politician who evidently expressed the national will

57
Q

Background to Nigerian independence?

A

North Nigeria was an Islamic area under emirs; nationalism= anti-western
West was economically advanced and wanted independent control
Southern nationalism was influenced by European ideas
Nigeria had elected Leg Council since 1922 and was loyal to Britain during the war (made br more favourable to listen to their demands)

58
Q

Different groups in Nigeria?

A

NCNC- National Council of Nigeria and Caeroons; dominated by Azikiwe, had widest appeal
Action Group- dominated by Yoruba; westernised elite; sought federal structure
Northern People’s Congress- dominated by Fulani and emirs; peasant disaffection went to factionalism

59
Q

Different constitutions in Nigeria?

A 
Richards Const (1946)- expanded Leg Council to debate matters affecting country; introduced elements of federalism
Macpherson Const (1951)- extended franchise, created a National Council of Ministers accountable to a Federal HoR; stimulated the growth of Nigerian politica parties
60
Q

What did 1954 Nigerian federal elections result in?

A

A Nigerian majority

61
Q

Progression to Nigerian independence post-1954 elections?

A

1957- Western and Eastern regions became formally self-governing under the parliamentary system
1959- Northern region developed similar status
1 Oct 1960- following 1959 elections, by a British Act of Parliament, Nigerian became independent

62
Q

Who led Nigeria? How responsible was he?

A

Azikiwe became governor-general of the federation
He prevented his colony from sliding into anarchy and breaking up; his negotiations with NPC were very important
Like Nkrumah, his ability to compromise andwin the trust of the British was crucial to gaining independence; he persuaded Britain that the ethnic groups could work together

63
Q

Independence of Southern and Central Africa? British beliefs?

A

Brs believed that joint administration of N, S Rhodesia and Nyasaland could form an effective counterweight to SA
Formed the CentralAfrican Federation in 1953
BUT Br maintained some power in order to protect African rights (eg discriminatory legislation vs Africans could be vetoed by the British)

64
Q

Problems with CAF?

A

Limited provision for African representation in the Federal Assembly, and so powerful nationalist movements arose in all 3
White governors in the CAF reacted by arresting the nationalist leaders

65
Q

Br opinions re CAF by end of 50s

A

Wanted decolonizaion

Nationalist leaders released

66
Q

CAF decolonialisation?

A

1963- CAF dissolved
1964- Kenneth Kaunda led N Rhodesia to indpedence as Zambia
Dr Hastings led Nyasaland to independence as Malawi

67
Q

What happened to S Rhodesia?

A

With weakening CAF, a large proportion of white population switched their support to the new Rhodesian Front Party which wanted independence for S Rhodesia under white control
They won elections in 1961
1965- Ian Sith declared S Rhodesia independent
In 1969 they became a republic and the country plunged into civil war

British Empire (19 decks)

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