PPVK

Question 1

the ability to detect a stimulus

Answer 1

Sensation

Question 2

the act of giving meaning to a detected sensation

Answer 2

Perception

Question 3

any of the very large set of selective processes in the brain

Answer 3

Attention

Question 4

the form of attention involved when processing is restricted
to a subset of the possible stimuli

Answer 4

Selective attention

Question 5

decision-based scene analyses that combine prior knowledge with retinal input to generate representations

Answer 5

Visual cognition

Question 6

minimum amount of stimulation necessary for a person to detect a stimulus 50% of the time

Answer 6

Absolute threshold

Question 7

the smallest detectable difference between two stimuli, or the minimum change in a stimulus that can be correctly judged as different from a reference stimulus

Answer 7

Just noticeable difference

Question 8

“the magnitude of subjective sensation increases proportionally to the logarithm of the stimulus intensity”

Answer 8

Fechner’s law

Question 9

observers’ ability to perceive a signal

Answer 9

sensitivity

Question 10

observers’ willingness to report a signal

Answer 10

criterion

Question 11

12 pairs of nerves (one for each side of the body) that originate in the brain stem and reach sense organs and muscles

Answer 11

Cranial nerves

Question 12

Parts of neuron (added explanation for clarification)

Answer 12

Dendrites – Branch-like structures that receive signals from other neurons and transmit them to the cell body.
Cell Body (Soma) – The main part of the neuron containing the nucleus, which processes incoming signals.
Axon – A long, tube-like structure that carries electrical impulses away from the cell body toward other neurons or muscles.
Myelin Sheath – A fatty layer that covers the axon, insulating it and speeding up signal transmission.
Nodes of Ranvier – Gaps in the myelin sheath that help speed up the transmission of nerve impulses.
Axon Terminals (Synaptic Terminals) – The ends of the axon that release neurotransmitters to communicate with other neurons or target cells.
Schwann cells - support neurons, especially in forming the myelin sheath around axons

Question 13

A technique that measures electrical activity from populations of many neurons in the brain

Answer 13

Electroencephalography (EEG)

Question 14

A measure of electrical activity from a subpopulation of neurons in response to particular stimuli that requires averaging many EEG recordings

Answer 14

Event-related potential (ERP)

Question 15

brain imaging technology that measures changes in magnetic activity across populations of many neurons in the brain; it has the same high temporal resolution as EEG, but better spatial resolution

Answer 15

Magnetoencephalography (MEG)

Question 16

Brain imaging technology that uses the responses of atoms to strong magnetic fields to measure localized patterns of brain activity
(activated neurons provoke increased blood flow, which can
be quantified by measuring changes of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood to strong magnetic fields)

Answer 16

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

Question 17

Name of signal measured for fMRI

Answer 17

blood oxygen level-dependent (BOLD) signal

Question 18

brain imaging technology that measures the metabolism of brain cells using safe radioactive isotopes

Answer 18

Positron emission tomography (PET)

Question 19

models that discover structure in sensory input to efficiently encode the world

Answer 19

Efficient coding models

Question 20

models that make predictions (predictive coding) based on prior knowledge about the world

Answer 20

Bayesian models

Question 21

models that simulate biological neurons with layers of input units massively interconnected with output units that can excite or inhibit each other

Answer 21

Artificial neural networks

Question 22

artificial neural networks with a very large number of layers of nodes with millions of connections between the input and output layers

Answer 22

Deep neural nets (DNNs)

Question 23

involuntary capture of attention

Answer 23

Exogenous attention (bottom-up, stimulus-driven)

Question 24

ability to shift attention in a voluntary manner, based on our top-down goals, such that we can seek out a particular target in a cluttered environment or maintain attention on an object in the face of distraction

Answer 24

Endogenous attention (top-down)

Question 25

occurs when a person directly gazes at the object of interest

Answer 25

Overt attention

Question 26

refers to attending to an object in the periphery, without moving the eyes or directly gazing at the attended item

Answer 26

Covert attention

Question 27

splitting attention between two different stimuli

Answer 27

Divided attention

Question 28

continuously monitoring some stimulus

Answer 28

Sustained attention

Question 29

measure of the time from the onset of a stimulus to a response

Answer 29

Reaction time (RT)

Question 30

a stimulus that might indicate where (or what) a subsequent stimulus will be [valid (correct information), invalid (incorrect), or neutral (uninformative)]

Answer 30

Cue

Question 31

The time between the onset of one stimulus and the onset of another

Answer 31

Stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA)

Question 32

2 (most prominent) theories of attention

Answer 32

“Spotlight” model and “Zoom lens” model

Question 33

the goal of a visual search

Answer 33

target

Question 34

any stimulus other than the target

Answer 34

distractor

Question 35

the number of items in a visual search display

Answer 35

set size

Question 36

the vividness of a stimulus relative to its neighbors

Answer 36

salience

Question 37

the challenge of tying different attributes of visual stimuli, which are handled by different brain circuits, to the appropriate object so we perceive a unified object.

Answer 37

The binding problem

Question 38

the difficulty in perceiving and responding to the second of two target stimuli amid a RSVP stream of distracting stimuli. (the second target is often missed if it appears within 200 to 500 ms of the first target)

Answer 38

Attentional blink

Question 39

Two pathways to visual experience (i.e., scene perception)

Answer 39

selective and nonselective pathway

Question 40

a narrow band of electromagnetic radiation that can be conceptualized as a wave or a stream of photons

Answer 40

light

Question 41

a quantum of visible light (or other form of electromagnetic radiation) demonstrating both particle and wave properties

Answer 41

photon

Question 42

the transparent “window” into the eyeball

Answer 42

Cornea

Question 43

upthe watery fluid in the anterior chamber

Answer 43

Aqueous humor

Question 44

the lens inside the eye, which focuses light onto the back of the eye

Answer 44

Crystalline lens

Question 45

the dark circular opening at the center of the iris in the eye, where light enters the eye

Answer 45

Pupil

Question 46

the colored part of the eye; a muscle that regulates the amount of light entering the eye by expanding and contracting the pupil

Answer 46

Iris

Question 47

the transparent fluid that fills the large chamber in the posterior part of the eye is called ____________. It comprises ___% of the internal volume of the eye

Answer 47

Vitreous humor 80%

Question 48

Part of the eye where seeing really begins is called _____1_____ where light energy is turned into electrical neural signals (transduction); a light-sensitive membrane in the back of the eye that contains ____2_____ and _____3______; the lens focuses an image on the retina then sends signals to the brain through the _____4______; motion, color, edges, and shape are all processed by specialized groups of cells in the retina

Answer 48

1) retina 2/3) rods and cones 4) optic nerve (cranial nerve 2)

Question 49

process of focusing light rays onto the retina accomplished by the lens

Answer 49

Refraction

Question 50

the process in which the lens changes its shape, thus altering its refractive power; change in focus

Answer 50

accommodation

Question 51

the age-related loss of accommodation (difficult to focus on near objects)

Answer 51

presbyopia (“old sight”)

Question 52

Problem of refraction when light is focused in front of the retina and distant objects cannot be seen sharply

Answer 52

Myopia (nearsightedness)

Question 53

Problems of refraction when light is focused behind the retina and near objects cannot be seen sharply

Answer 53

Hyperopia (farsightedness)

Question 54

unequal curving of one or more of the refractive surfaces of the eye, usually the cornea.

Answer 54

Astigmatism

Question 55

Cells in the retina that transduce light energy into neural energy

Answer 55

Photoreceptors (rods and cones)

Question 56

photoreceptors specialized for night vision; respond well in low luminance conditions; do not process color

Answer 56

Rods (~90 million)

Question 57

photoreceptors specialized for daytime vision, fine visual acuity, and color; they respond best in high luminance conditions

Answer 57

Cones (~5 million)

Question 58

Light passes through several layers of cells before reaching rods and cones. ____1____ have axons that leave the retina through the optic disc (blind spot). ____2____ cells are connected to them and amacrine cells. Light activates a photoreceptor, which signals the ____2____ and ____3_____ cells that synapse with it.

Answer 58

1) Ganglion cells 2) Bipolar 3) Horizontal

Question 59

The standard way to measure retinal size is in terms of _________________________

Answer 59

degrees of visual angle (The visual angle of an object is a function of both its actual size and distance from the observer)

Question 60

A small, central pit composed of closely packed cones in the eye. It is located in the center of the macula lutea of the retina.

Answer 60

Fovea (centralis)

Question 61

pigments that undergo a chemical change when they absorb light

Answer 61

photopigments (after a photopigment molecule is used to detect a photon (bleached), the molecule must be regenerated before it can be used again to absorb another photon)

Question 62

light hitting a photoreceptor; chemical changes that start a cascade of neural events ending in a visual sensation.

Answer 62

photoactivation

Question 63

In photoreceptors, ____1______ stores visual pigments, ______2______ manufactures visual pigments and _____3______ serves as connection to other cells

Answer 63

1) outer segment 2) inner segment 3) synaptic terminal

Question 64

Visual pigment consists of a _____1______ that captures photons and a protein, called ____2____ which determines the wavelength of light to which the photoreceptor responds

Answer 64

1) chromophore 2) opsin

Question 65

Opsin in rods is named _____1______ and cones have three different opsins, which respond to long ____2____, medium ____3____ or short ____4____ wavelengths

Answer 65

1) rhodopsin 2) L-, red 3) M-, green 4) S-, blue

Question 66

A photpigment that can monitor ambient light levels and influence our sleep/wake cycle (contained in retinal ganglion cells)

Answer 66

Melanopsin

Question 67

Cones work best in _______________ situations

Answer 67

photopic (high-illumination)

Question 68

Rods work best in ________________ situations

Answer 68

scotopic (low-illumination)

Question 69

cells that run perpendicular to the photoreceptors and contact both photoreceptors and bipolar cells; responsible for lateral inhibition, which creates the center-surround receptive field structure of retinal ganglion cells.

Answer 69

Horizontal cells

Question 70

cells that run horizontally between bipolar cells and retinal ganglion cells; have been implicated in contrast enhancement and temporal sensitivity (detecting light patterns that change over time)

Answer 70

Amacrine cells

Question 71

Name types of cells in retina’s horizontal and vertical pathways.

Answer 71

horizontal pathway: horizontal and amacrine cells vertical pathway: photoreceptors, bipolar cells, and ganglion cells

Question 72

connected with one or more rods or cones and with horizontal cells; passes the signals to ganglion cells

Answer 72

bipolar cells

Question 73

____1_____ bipolar cell receives input from multiple photoreceptors (convergence), while ____2____ bipolar cell receives input from a single cone

Answer 73

1) Diffuse [decreases acuity but increases light sensitivity] 2) Midget (divergence - ON and OFF bipolar cells provide information about whether the retinal illumination increased or decreased)

Question 74

___1___ ganglion cells (~70% of all ganglion cells in retina) receive input from midget bipolar cells ___2___ ganglion cells (~10% of all ganglion cells in retina) receive input from diffuse bipolar cells

Answer 74

1) P (connect to the parvocellular pathway of LGN) 2) M (connect to the magnocellular pathway of LGN)

Question 75

________________ pathway is involved in fine visual acuity, color, and shape processing; poor temporal resolution but good spatial resolution;

Answer 75

parvocellular („small cell”)

Question 76

________________ pathway is involved in motion processing; excellent temporal resolution but poor spatial resolution

Answer 76

magnocellular (“large cell”)

Question 77

A bipolar cell that depolarizes in response to an increase in light captured by the cones.

Answer 77

ON bipolar cell

Question 78

A bipolar cell that hyperpolarizes in response to an increase in light captured by the cones.

Answer 78

OFF bipolar cell

Question 79

The smallest spatial detail that can be resolved (at 100% contrast)

Answer 79

Acuity ( The Snellen E test)

Question 80

Peripheral cones respond to light ______ than foveal cones

Answer 80

faster

Question 81

The visual system breaks down images into a vast number of components, each is a sine wave grating with a particular spatial frequency. (name of this mathematical procedure?)

Answer 81

Fourier analysis

Question 82

A structure in the thalamus, part of the midbrain, that receives input from the retinal ganglion cells and has input and output connections to the visual cortex

Answer 82

lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN)

Question 83

The left LGN receives projections from the ___1____ side of the retina in both eyes (___2___ visual field)

Answer 83

1) left (same) 2) right (opposite)

Question 84

Cell types in LGN a) _____1_____ →large cells, bottom two layers →receive input from ___1a___ ganglion cells →respond best to large, fast-moving objects b) _____2_____ →smaller cells, top four layers →receive input from ___2a___ ganglion cells →respond best to fine spatial details of stationary objects c) _____3_____ →very small cells in between the _____1_____ and _____2_____sections →we are still not entirely sure what these cells do

Answer 84

1) Magnocellular (M) 2) Parvocellular (P) 3) oniocellular

Question 85

Two important features of ____________ 1) Topographical mapping 2) Cortical magnification

Answer 85

Striate cortex

Question 86

Proportionally much more Striate cortex devoted to processing the fovea than to processing the periphery, so visual acuity declines with __________

Answer 86

eccentricity (i.e., distance from the fovea)

Question 87

the deleterious effect of clutter on peripheral object detection; stimuli that can be seen in isolation in peripheral vision become hard to discern when other stimuli are nearby; (a major bottleneck for visual processing)

Answer 87

Visual crowding

Question 88

Cells in striate cortex respond best to bars of light. ___1___ cells have preference for light OR dark bars and ___2___ cells have preference for BOTH light AND dark bars

Answer 88

1) simple 2) complex

Question 89

neurons in striate cortex respond most to bars of certain ___________

Answer 89

orientations (Orientation selectivity) [response rate falls off with angular difference of bar from preferred orientation]

Question 90

The ___1____ receptive fields in the LGN is transformed into the ___2___ receptive fields in striate cortex {shapes}

Answer 90

1) circular 2) elongated (orientated bar)

Question 91

The property of the receptive fields of striate cortex neurons by which they demonstrate a preference, responding somewhat more rapidly when a stimulus is presented in one eye than when it is presented in the other

Answer 91

ocular dominance [by the time information gets to primary visual cortex, inputs from both eyes have been combined]

Question 92

___1___ cells are cortical neurons whose receptive fields have clearly defined excitatory and inhibitory regions. They are further divided into two flavors: ____2____ and ____3____

Answer 92

1) Simple 2) an edge detector 3) a stripe detector

Question 93

The process by which a cell in the cortex increases its firing rate as the length of a bar increases until the bar fills up its receptive field, and then it decreases its firing rate as the bar is lengthened further.

Answer 93

End stopping

Question 94

_____1____ is a vertical arrangement of neurons. Neurons within a single _____1____ tend to have similar receptive fields and similar orientation preferences.

Answer 94

column

Question 95

A 1-millimeter block of striate cortex containing two sets of columns, each covering every possible orientation (0–180 degrees), with one set preferring input from the left eye and one set preferring input from the right eye

Answer 95

Hypercolumn

Question 96

a reduction in response caused by continuing stimulation

Answer 96

Adaptation

Question 97

A pattern analyzer, implemented by an ensemble of cortical neurons, in which each set of neurons is tuned to a limited range of spatial frequencies.

Answer 97

Spatial-frequency channel

Question 98

The region of cortex bordering the primary visual cortex and containing multiple areas involved in visual processing.

Answer 98

Extrastriate cortex (contains V2, V3, V4, inferotemporal cortex...)

Question 99

At higher levels of the visual pathway, neurons have _______ receptive fields

Answer 99

larger

Question 100

Pogressive increase in receptive field size is accompanied by an increase in ___________________________________

Answer 100

neuronal tuning complexity (NT - hypothesized property of brain cells by which they selectively represent a particular type of sensory, association, motor, or cognitive information)

Question 101

V2 neurons would differentiate between the edge of a black square on gray background and the edge of a gray square on a black background: phenomenon termed ________________

Answer 101

border ownership

Question 102

Name the two main pathways from the extrastriate regions of the occipital lobe (and what question they try to give answer to).

Answer 102

Dorsal pathway (where?) and ventral pathway (what?)

Question 103

Dorsal pathway heads up into the _________ lobe → important for representing objects in space (location); actions; deployment of attention

Answer 103

parietal

Question 104

ventral pathway heads up into the ________ lobe → important for object recognition

Answer 104

temporal

Question 105

____1_____ is failure to recognize objects in spite of the ability to see them, and can be caused by damage to ____2_____ cortex

Answer 105

1) agnosia 2) Inferotemporal (IT)

Question 106

A process that carries out a computation (e.g., object recognition) one neural step after another, without need for feedback from a later stage to an earlier stage.

Answer 106

feed-forward process

Question 107

A theory that fast, feed-forward processes can give you crude information about objects and scenes based on activity in high-level parts of the visual cortex. You become aware of details when activity flows back down the hierarchy of visual areas to lower-level areas where the detailed information is preserved.

Answer 107

reverse-hierarchy theory

Question 108

Mid-level vision performs perception of ___1___ and ___1___ and groups regions of an image into ___2____

Answer 108

1) edges and surfaces 2) objects

Question 109

a contour that is perceived even though nothing changes from one side of the contour to the other

Answer 109

Illusory contour

Question 110

a set of organizing principles that describe the visual system’s interpretation of the raw retinal image

Answer 110

Gestalt grouping rules

Question 111

a Gestalt grouping rule stating that two elements will tend to group together if they lie on the same contour

Answer 111

Good continuation

Question 112

a Gestalt principle that holds that a closed contour is preferred to an open contour

Answer 112

Closure

Question 113

carving an image into regions of common texture properties

Answer 113

Texture segmentation (texture grouping)

Question 114

a visual stimulus that gives rise to two or more interpretations of its identity or structure

Answer 114

Ambiguous figures

Question 115

A Gestalt grouping rule stating that the tendency of two features to group together will increase as the similarity between them increases

Answer 115

similarity

Question 116

A Gestalt grouping rule stating that the tendency of two features to group together will increase as the distance between them decreases.

Answer 116

proximity

Question 117

A rule for figure-ground assignment stating that parallel contours are likely to belong to the same figure.

Answer 117

parallelism

Question 118

A rule for figure-ground assignment stating that symmetrical regions are more likely to be seen as figure

Answer 118

symmetry

Question 119

a viewing position that produces some regularity in the visual image that is not present in the world.

Answer 119

Accidental viewpoint

Question 120

the process of determining that some regions of an image belong to a foreground object (figure) and other regions are part of the background (ground)

Answer 120

Figure-ground assignment

Question 121

the degree to which two line segments appear to be part of the same contour (in case of occlusions)

Answer 121

Relatability

Question 122

The properties of the global image take precedence over local

Answer 122

Global superiority effect

Question 123

comparing activity with and without the mental process of interest (in functional imaging)

Answer 123

subtraction method

Question 124

determining the nature of a stimulus from the pattern of responses measured in the brain (in functional imaging)

Answer 124

neural decoding

Question 125

Color is not a physical property but a ___________ property.

Answer 125

psychophysical

Question 126

Changes in position over time

Answer 126

Motion

Question 127

the illusion of motion of a stationary object that occurs after prolonged exposure to a moving object

Answer 127

Motion aftereffect (MAE)

Question 128

Light with many wavelengths is called ___1___ and light with only one wavelength is called ___2___

Answer 128

1) heterochromatic 2) monochromatic

Question 129

Three steps to color perception: ___1___ → wavelengths of light must be detected in the first place ___2___ → we must be able to tell the difference between one wavelength (or mixture of wavelengths) and another ___3___ → we want to assign perceived colors to lights and surfaces in the world and have those perceived colors be stable over time, regardless of different lighting conditions

Answer 129

1) Detection 2) Discrimination 3) Appearance

Question 130

An infinite set of different wavelength-intensity combinations can elicit exactly the same response, so the output of a single photoreceptor cannot by itself tell us anything about the wavelengths stimulating it. This constraint is known as the __________________________

Answer 130

principle of univariance

Question 131

Rods are sensitive to _____1____ light levels; all rods contain the same photopigment molecule (____2_____)

Answer 131

1) scoptic (Referring to light intensities that are bright enough to stimulate the rod receptors but too dim to stimulate the cone receptors) aka low 2) rhodopsin

Question 132

Under __________ conditions, the S-, M-, and L-cones are all active

Answer 132

photopic

Question 133

The theory that the color of any light is defined in our visual system by the relationships of three numbers, the outputs of three receptor types now known to be the three cones.

Answer 133

Trichromacy or trichromatic theory of color vision (also known as the Young-Helmholtz theory)

Question 134

different mixtures of wavelengths that look identical (any pair of stimuli that are perceived as identical in spite of physical differences)

Answer 134

Metamers

Question 135

a neuron whose output is based on a difference between sets of cones

Answer 135

Cone-opponent cell

Question 136

Several types of color-blind/color-anamolous people; dichromacy: ____1____ - dueto absence of M-cones ____2____ - dueto absence of L-cones ____3____ - dueto absence of S-cones

Answer 136

1) deuteranope 2) protanope 3) tritanope

Question 137

True color blindness does occur but it is very unusual. It is possible to be a _____1_____, with only one type of cone in the retina. Cone monochromats (who also have rods) live in a one-dimensional color space, seeing the world only in shades of gray. Even more visually impaired are _____2_____, who are missing cones altogether. Because the rods work well only in dim light and are generally absent in the fovea, these individuals not only fail to discriminate colors, but also have very poor acuity and serious difficulties seeing under normal daylight conditions

Answer 137

1) cone monochromat 2) rod monochromats

Question 138

when one stimulus evokes the experience of another stimulus that is not present

Answer 138

Synesthesia

Question 139

a color perception effect in which the color of one region induces the opponent color in a neighboring region

Answer 139

Color contrast

Question 140

a color perception effect in which two colors bleed into each other, each taking on some of the chromatic quality of the other

Answer 140

Color assimilation

Question 141

a visual image seen after a stimulus has been removed

Answer 141

afterimage

Question 142

an afterimage whose polarity is the opposite of the original stimulus (light stimuli produce dark afterimages, colors are complementary)

Answer 142

Negative afterimage

Question 143

the tendency of a surface to appear the same color under a fairly wide range of illuminants

Answer 143

Color constancy

Question 144

the light that illuminates a surface

Answer 144

illuminant

Question 145

the combination of signals from both eyes in ways that make performance on many tasks better than with either eye alone is called ________________________

Answer 145

binocular summation

Question 146

the differences between the two retinal images of the same scene is called _________________

Answer 146

Binocular disparity

Question 147

binocular perception of depth

Answer 147

stereopsis (special, but not a necessary condition for depth perception)

Question 148

information about the third dimension in visual space is called _____1______. We divide them into ________2_________

Answer 148

1) depth cue 2) monocular and binocular (depth cues)

Question 149

A monocular cue to relative depth order in which, for example, one object partially obstructs the view of another object

Answer 149

Occlusion (nonmetrical depth cue)

Question 150

a depth cue that provides information about the depth order (relative depth) but not depth magnitude.

Answer 150

nonmetrical depth cue (category of depth cues, not the specific one)

Question 151

a depth cues comparison of size between items without knowing the absolute size of either one

Answer 151

relative size

Question 152

a depth cue based on the geometric fact that items of the same size form smaller, closer spaced images the farther away they get (combination of the cues of relative size and relative height)

Answer 152

Texture gradient

Question 153

the observation that objects at different distances from the viewer on the ground plane will form images at different heights in the retinal image (objects farther away will be seen as higher in the image)

Answer 153

Relative height

Question 154

a cue based on knowledge of the typical size of objects (when you know the typical size of an object, you can guess how far away it is based on how small or large it appears)

Answer 154

Familiar size (often works in conjunction with the cue of relative size)

Question 155

a depth cue that could specify that object A is twice as far away as object B without providing information about the absolute distance to either A or B

Answer 155

relative metrical depth cue

Question 156

a depth cue that provides quantifiable information about distance in the third dimension

Answer 156

absolute metrical depth cue

Question 157

a depth cue based on the implicit understanding that light is scattered by the atmosphere (more light is scattered when we look through more atmosphere -> more distant objects appear fainter, bluer, and less distinct)

Answer 157

Aerial perspective

Question 158

a depth cue based on the fact that lines that are parallel in the 3D world will appear to converge in a 2D image

Answer 158

Linear perspective

Question 159

the apparent point at which parallel lines receding in depth converge

Answer 159

vanishing point

Question 160

images closer to the observer move faster across the visual field than images farther away; the brain uses this information to calculate the distances of objects in the environment (motion cue)

Answer 160

Motion parallax

Question 161

the process by which the eye changes its focus; lens gets fatter as gaze is directed toward nearer objects

Answer 161

accommodation

Question 162

the ability of the two eyes to turn inward, often used to focus on nearer objects

Answer 162

convergence

Question 163

the ability of the two eyes to turn outward, often used to focus on farther objects

Answer 163

divergence

Question 164

a geometric concept stating that points on the retina of each eye where the monocular retinal images of a single object are formed are at the same distance from the fovea in each eye

Answer 164

corresponding retinal points

Question 165

The location of objects whose images lie on corresponding points. The surface of zero disparity.

Answer 165

Horopter ( Vieth–Müller circle*) *not exactly the same thing but they are as far as we are concerned

Question 166

the region of space, in front of and behind the horopter, within which binocular single vision is possible

Answer 166

Panum’s fusional area

Question 167

the sign of disparity created by objects in front of the plane of the horopter

Answer 167

Crossed disparity (images in front of the horopter are displaced to the left in the right eye and to the right in the left eye)

Question 168

the sign of disparity created by objects behind the plane of the horopter

Answer 168

Uncrossed disparity (images behind the horopter are displaced to the right in the right eye and to the left in the left eye)

Question 169

an inability to make use of binocular disparity as a depth cue

Answer 169

Stereoblindness (most people who are stereoblind do not even realize it 3–5% of the population)

Question 170

in binocular vision, the problem of figuring out which bit of the image in the left eye should be matched with which bit in the right eye

Answer 170

Correspondence problem

Question 171

In reference to stereopsis, the observation that a feature in the world is represented exactly once in each retinal image. This constraint simplifies the correspondence problem.

Answer 171

Uniqueness constraint

Question 172

In reference to stereopsis, the observation that, except at the edges of objects, neighboring points in the world lie at similar distances from the viewer.

Answer 172

Continuity constraint

Question 173

The competition between the two eyes for control of visual perception, which is evident when completely different stimuli are presented to the two eyes.

Answer 173

binocular rivalry

Question 174

MAE must occur in neurons that respond to both eyes. T/F

Answer 174

True (MAE = motion aftereffect)

Question 175

Input from both eyes is combined in area V1, so MAE must be in V1 or later. T/F

Answer 175

True (MT/V5)

Question 176

The illusory impression of smooth motion resulting from the rapid alternation of objects that appear in different locations in rapid succession

Answer 176

Apparent motion (motion detector circuit does not need real motion in order to fire - The Reichardt detector/model)

Question 177

the problem faced by the motion detection system of knowing which feature in frame 2 corresponds to which feature in frame 1

Answer 177

Correspondence problem (motion)

Question 178

the fact that when a moving object is viewed through an aperture (or a receptive field), the direction of motion of a local feature or part of an object may be ambiguous

Answer 178

Aperture problem

Question 179

Motion information from several receptive fields (local apertures → local motion) is combined to determine the ____________

Answer 179

global motion

Question 180

Lesions in ____1____ layers of ____2____ impair perception of large, rapidly moving objects. _______3_______ also plays an important role in motion perception

Answer 180

1) magnocellular 2) LGN 3) Middle temporal area (MT)

Question 181

the motion of an object that is defined by changes in luminance

Answer 181

First-order motion

Question 182

an object that is delineated by differences in reflected light

Answer 182

luminance-defined object

Question 183

the motion of an object that is defined by changes in contrast or texture, but not by luminance is called _____1_____. It is invisible to _____2_____ and ______3_______.

Answer 183

1) Second-order motion 2) Reichardt detectors 3) Fourier-based mechanisms

Question 184

an object that is defined by changes in contrast or texture, but not by luminance

Answer 184

texture-defined (contrast-defined) object

Question 185

Our sensitivity to second-order motion is considerably stronger than our ability to perceive first-order motion. T/F

Answer 185

False ( sensitivity to second-order motion is considerably weaker)

Question 186

According to Lu and Sperling (1995) _______________ is motion system that responds to moving modulations of feature types (stimuli in which the expected luminance is the same everywhere but an area of higher contrast or of flicker moves)

Answer 186

second-order system

Question 187

According to Lu and Sperling (1995) _______________ is motion system that responds to moving luminance patterns

Answer 187

first-order system

Question 188

According to Lu and Sperling (1995) _______________ is motion systems that computes the motion of marked locations in a “salience map”, that is, a neural representation of visual space in which the locations of important visual features (“figure”) are marked and “ground” is unmarked

Answer 188

third-order system

Question 189

Motion Induced Blindness (MIB) - motion can make you temporarily „blind” - no clear explanation - related to the ________________

Answer 189

Troxler’s effect/fading

Question 190

the collection of light rays that interact with objects in the world in front of a viewer

Answer 190

Optic array

Question 191

the changing angular position of points in a perspective image that we experience as we move through the world

Answer 191

Optic flow

Question 192

the point in the center of the horizon from which, when we are in motion, all points in the perspective image seem to emanate. It tells the observer which way they are heading

Answer 192

focus of expansion (FOE)

Question 193

______________ of an approaching object is calculated as distance/rate => 10m / 50m/s = 0.2s

Answer 193

time to collision (TTC)

Question 194

the ratio of the retinal image size at any moment to the rate at which the image is expanding is _________. (information in the optic flow that could signal TTC without the necessity of estimating either absolute distances or rates)

Answer 194

tau (𝜏)

Question 195

TTC is proportional to tau. T/F

Answer 195

True

Question 196

Successful perception of object motion requires the estimation of both _____________ and ____________ which together define object velocity

Answer 196

direction and speed

Question 197

a type of voluntary eye movement in which the eyes move smoothly to follow a moving object

Answer 197

Smooth pursuit

Question 198

a type of eye movement, made both voluntarily and involuntarily, in which the eyes rapidly change fixation from one object or location to another

Answer 198

Saccade

Question 199

involuntary eye drifts and small jerks

Answer 199

Microsaccades

Question 200

___ muscles are attached to each eye and are arranged in ______ and controlled by an extensive network of structures in the brain. {numbers} {bonus points if you name them}

Answer 200

6, 3 pairs - Superior oblique, Inferior oblique, Superior rectus, Lateral rectus, Medial rectus, Inferior rectus

Question 201

_____1_____ is a type of eye movement, both voluntary and involuntary, in which the two eyes move in opposite directions; _____2_____ eye movements turn the eyes inward and _____3______ eye movements turn the eyes outward

Answer 201

1) Vergence 2) convergent 3) divergent

Question 202

automatic and involuntary eye movements

Answer 202

Reflexive

Question 203

a structure in the midbrain (i.e., mesencephalon) that is important in initiating and guiding eye movements; when this structure is electrically stimulated, eye movements result

Answer 203

Superior colliculus

Question 204

a structure in the frontal cortex that is responsible for saccadic eye movements and for pursuit eye movements

Answer 204

Frontal eye fields (FEF) [together with the supplementary eye fields (SEF), the intraparietal sulcus (IPS) and the superior colliculus (SC) one of the most important brain areas involved in the generation and control of eye movements]

Question 205

the reduction of visual sensitivity that occurs when we make saccadic eye movements; partially eliminates the smear from retinal image motion during an eye movement

Answer 205

Saccadic suppression (no suppression takes place when we execute smooth-pursuit eye movements)

Question 206

_______1________ is the phenomenon in which outgoing (efferent) signals from the motor cortex are copied as they exit the brain and are rerouted to other areas in the sensory cortices. Goes to an area of the visual system that has been dubbed the _____2_____.

Answer 206

1. Efference copy (or corollary discharge signal) 2. comparator

Question 207

Dynamic remapping of receptive fields: →______1______ is planned but not yet executed →some neurons in ____2_____ cortex remap their receptive fields relative to upcoming fixation location →____1____ is executed →receptive fields are already processing information from new location before eye lands there (3)T/F →receptive fields of neurons in the ____4____ also transiently shift inward towards the new point of fixation

Answer 207

1) a saccade 2) parietal 3) True 4) frontal eye fields

Question 208

Physical definition: _________ is pressure changes in the air or other medium Perceptual definition: _________ is the experience we have when we hear

Answer 208

sound

Question 209

____1____ is the magnitude of displacement (increase or decrease) of a sound pressure wave; measured in ____2____ which is the ratio between two sound pressures. It is perceived as ____3_____

Answer 209

1) Amplitude or Intensity 2) decibel (dB) 3) loudness

Question 210

_____1_____ for sound is the number of times per second that a pattern of pressure change repeats. It is measured in _____2_____ calculated as cycle/second. It is perceived as _____3______

Answer 210

1) Frequency 2) hertz (Hz) 3) pitch

Question 211

One of the simplest kinds of sounds are _________ waves, or pure tone: the waveform for which variation as a function of time is a ________ function

Answer 211

sine

Question 212

All sound waves can be described as some combination of sine waves. A mathematical procedure by which any signal can be separated into component sine waves at different frequencies is called _____________.

Answer 212

Fourier Analysis (It produces a spectrum that displays how much energy is present in each of the frequencies in the sound.)

Question 213

the spectrum of a complex sound in which energy is at integer multiples of the fundamental frequency

Answer 213

Harmonic spectrum

Question 214

the lowest-frequency component of a complex periodic sound

Answer 214

fundamental frequency

Question 215

the psychological sensation by which a listener can judge that two sounds with the same loudness and pitch are dissimilar

Answer 215

timbre (boja zvuka)

Question 216

Sounds are first collected from the environment by the _____1_____ which funnels sounds into the _____2______. It's length and shape enhances certain sound frequencies and protects the structure at it's end, called ______3_______: a thin sheet of skin that vibrates in response to sound. _____3______ marks the border between ______4______ and ______5______ ear.

Answer 216

1) pinnae 2) ear canal 3) tympanic membrane (the eardrum) 4) outer 5) middle

Question 217

Three tiny bones that amplify and transmit sounds to the inner ear are called ____1____. ____2____ receives vibrations from the tympanic membrane and is attached to the ____3____ (the middle bone) . ____4____ is connected to the ____3____ on one end and the oval window of the cochlea on the other .

Answer 217

1) ossicles 2) malleus (čekić) 3) incus (nakovanj) 4) stapes (stremen)

Question 218

___________ is border between middle and inner ear

Answer 218

oval window

Question 219

_____1_____ and _____1_____ are two muscles in the middle ear that decrease ossicle vibrations when tensed (muffle loud sounds and protect the inner ear) That function is called _____2_____ and it follows onset of loud sounds by 200 ms

Answer 219

1) Tensor tympani ( attached to the malleus) and stapedius (attached to the stapes) 2) acoustic reflex

Question 220

Hollow cavity in the temporal bone of the skull, and the structures within this cavity: the cochlea and the semicircular canals of the vestibular system, is called ______1______. There, fine changes in sound pressure are transduced into ____2____ signals. (function is roughly analogous to that of the retina)

Answer 220

1) inner ear 2) neural

Question 221

____1____ is spiral structure of the inner ear containing the organ of Corti. It is filled with _____2______ (watery fluids) in three parallel canals: ________3________ (name them all)

Answer 221

1) cochlea 2) endolymph 3) the tympanic canal (or scala tympani), the vestibular canal (or scala vestibuli) and the middle canal (or scala media or cochlear duct)

Question 222

a small opening connecting the tympanic and vestibular canals

Answer 222

helicotrema

Question 223

between the vestibular canal and the middle canal there is _______1_______, and between the middle canal and the tympanic canal we can find ______2_______

Answer 223

1) Reissner’s membrane 2) basilar membrane

Question 224

the combined basilar membrane, tectorial membrane, and organ of Corti, which are together responsible for the transduction of sound waves into neural signals

Answer 224

cochlear partition

Question 225

a structure in the middle canal of the cochlea that is composed of hair cells and dendrites of auditory nerve fibers

Answer 225

organ of Corti

Question 226

cells that support the stereocilia, which transduce mechanical movement in the cochlea into neural activity sent to the brain stem

Answer 226

hair cells

Question 227

The cochlear hair cells in humans consist of _______ row of inner hair cells and ______ rows of outer hair cells. {numbers}

Answer 227

1 inner and 3 outer

Question 228

The __________ are the actual sensory receptors, and 95% of the fibers of the auditory nerve that project to the brain arise from this subpopulation

Answer 228

inner hair cells

Question 229

The terminations on the outer hair cells are almost all from ____________ that arise from cells in the brain

Answer 229

efferent* axons * conducting outwards or away from something (inner cells input to brain, outer cells output from brain)

Question 230

a collection of neurons that convey information from hair cells in the cochlea to the brain stem (afferent neurons) and from the brain stem to the hair cells (efferent neurons)

Answer 230

auditory nerve

Question 231

any of the hairlike extensions on the tips of hair cells in the cochlea that, when flexed, initiate the release of neurotransmitters

Answer 231

stereocilium

Question 232

a gelatinous structure, attached on one end, that extends into the middle canal of the cochlea, floating above inner hair cells and touching outer hair cells

Answer 232

tectorial membrane

Question 233

hair cells in the ___________ organs also report head movements to the brain

Answer 233

vestibular

Question 234

deflection of a hair cell’s -> a change in _____1_____ potential -> initiates the release of _____2_____ -> encourages firing by auditory nerve fibers that have ____3_____ synapses on hair cells

Answer 234

1) voltage 2) neurotransmitters 3) dendritic

Question 235

If the amplitude of a sound wave is increased: (T/Fs) 1) the tympanic membrane and oval window move farther in and out with each pressure fluctuation 2) the bulge in the vestibular canal becomes smaller 3) the cochlear partition moves farther up and down 4) the tectorial membrane shears across the organ of Corti more forcefully 5) the hair cells pivot farther back and forth 6) more neurotransmitters are absorbed 7) the auditory nerve fibers fire action potentials more quickly

Answer 235

1) True 2) False (becomes bigger) 3) True 4) True 5) True 6) False (released not absorbed) 7) True

Question 236

Tuning of different parts of the cochlea to different frequencies, in which information about the particular frequency of an incoming sound wave is coded by the place along the cochlear partition that has the greatest mechanical displacement.

Answer 236

place code

Question 237

responses of individual auditory nerve fibers to different frequencies are related to their place along the ______________

Answer 237

cochlear partition

Question 238

frequency selectivity is clearest when sounds are very loud (T/F)

Answer 238

False (frequency selectivity is clearest when sounds are very faint)

Question 239

A graph plotting the thresholds of a neuron in response to sine waves with varying frequencies at the lowest intensity that will give rise to a response.

Answer 239

threshold tuning curve

Question 240

A decrease in the firing rate of one auditory nerve fiber due to one tone, when a second tone is presented at the same time.

Answer 240

two-tone suppression

Question 241

the point at which a nerve fiber is firing as rapidly as possible and further stimulation is incapable of increasing the firing rate.

Answer 241

rate saturation

Question 242

a graph plotting the firing rate of an auditory nerve fiber in response to a sound of constant frequency at increasing intensities

Answer 242

rate-intensity function

Question 243

the first brainstem nucleus at which afferent auditory nerve fibers synapse

Answer 243

cochlear nucleus

Question 244

an early brain stem region in the auditory pathway where inputs from both ears converge

Answer 244

superior olive

Question 245

a midbrain nucleus in the auditory pathway

Answer 245

inferior colliculus

Question 246

the part of the thalamus that relays auditory signals to the temporal cortex and receives input from the auditory cortex

Answer 246

medial geniculate nucleus

Question 247

The first area within the temporal lobes of the brain responsible for processing acoustic organization

Answer 247

primary auditory cortex (A1)

Question 248

a region of cortex, directly adjacent to the primary auditory cortex (A1), with inputs from A1, where neurons respond to more complex characteristics of sounds

Answer 248

belt area

Question 249

a region of cortex, lateral and adjacent to the belt area, where neurons respond to more complex characteristics of sounds, as well as to input from other senses

Answer 249

parabelt area

Question 250

an arrangement in which neurons that respond to different frequencies are organized anatomically in order of frequency

Answer 250

tonotopic organization

Question 251

the branch of psychophysics that studies the psychological correlates of the physical dimensions of acoustics in order to understand how the auditory system operates

Answer 251

psychoacoustics

Question 252

The lowest sound pressure level that can be reliably detected at a given frequency

Answer 252

audibility threshold

Question 253

a graph plotting sound pressure level (dB SPL) against the frequency for which a listener perceives constant loudness

Answer 253

equal-loudness curve

Question 254

the process by which a sound at a constant level is perceived as being louder when it is of greater duration (the term also applies to perceived brightness, which depends on the duration of the light)

Answer 254

temporal integration

Question 255

using a second sound, frequently noise, to make the detection of another sound more difficult

Answer 255

masking

Question 256

noise consisting of all audible frequencies in equal amounts

Answer 256

white noise (analogous to white light in vision, for which all wavelengths are present)

Question 257

the range of frequencies conveyed within a channel in the auditory system

Answer 257

critical bandwidth

Question 258

Sound localization is based on _________ and ________ differences.

Answer 258

timing and loudness

Question 259

the difference in time between a sound arriving at one ear versus the other

Answer 259

interaural time differences (ITD)

Question 260

____1____ is the angle of a sound source on the horizontal plane relative to a point in the center of the head between the ears. Measured in ____2____ , with 0 being straight ahead and then increasing clockwise

Answer 260

1) Azimuth 2) degrees (360)

Question 261

a relay station in the brainstem where inputs from both ears contribute to detection of ITDs

Answer 261

medial superior olive (MSO)

Question 262

ITD detectors form connections from inputs coming from two ears during the first few years of life (T/F)

Answer 262

False (months)

Question 263

_______1______ is the difference in level (intensity) between a sound arriving at one ear versus the other. It is largest at __2__ and __2__ degrees; nonexistent for __3__ and __3__ degrees

Answer 263

1) interaural level difference (ILD) 2) 90 and -90 3) 0 and 180

Question 264

______1______ is a relay station in the brainstem where inputs from both ears contribute to detection of the ILDs. _____2_____ connections come from ipsilateral ear; ____3____ connections to LSO come from contralateral ear

Answer 264

1) lateral superior olive (LSO) 2) excitatory 3) inhibitory

Question 265

a region of positions in space where all sounds produce the same ITDs and ILDs

Answer 265

cone of confusion ( turning the head can disambiguate ILD/ITD similarity)

Question 266

a measure that describes how the pinna, ear canal, head, and torso change the intensity of sounds with different frequencies that arrive at each ear from different locations in space (azimuth and elevation)

Answer 266

directional transfer function (DTF)

Question 267

simplest cue for auditory distance perception is ___________ of sound → inverse-square law: decrease in __________ is equal to the distance squared

Answer 267

relative intensity

Question 268

higher frequencies decrease in energy more than lower frequencies as sound waves travel from source to one ear

Answer 268

spectral composition of sounds

Question 269

When people lose their vision, their hearing improves * One reason is that visual cortex gets recruited to process auditory input when visual inputs are no longer available * Some blind people can navigate by making clicks with their mouths and listening to the echoes * fMRI studies show activation in visual cortex in response to auditory clicks for blind people who can navigate through echolocation => this is phenomenon of improved ____________________

Answer 269

Sound localization

Question 270

part of a sound during which amplitude increases (onset) is called _____1_____ and part of a sound during which amplitude decreases (offset) is called _____2_____

Answer 270

1) attack 2) decay

Question 271

processing an auditory scene consisting of multiple sound sources into separate sound images is called _______1_______. Some trategies to segregate sound sources: - __________2__________ - __________3__________

Answer 271

1) auditory scene analysis 2) spatial separation between sounds 3) separation based on sounds’ spectral or temporal qualities

Question 272

the perceptual organization of a complex acoustic signal into separate auditory events for which each stream is heard as a separate event

Answer 272

auditory stream segregation

Question 273

separation of tones that have increasing and decreasing frequencies, or tones that deviate from a rising/falling pattern “pop out” of the sequence

Answer 273

grouping by timbre

Question 274

when sounds begin at the same time, or nearly the same time, they appear to be coming from the same sound source, a phenomenon called ______1_______ →this helps group different harmonics into a single complex tone →consistent with the Gestalt law of ______2_______

Answer 274

1) grouping by onset 2) common fate

Question 275

Experiments using a signal detection task suggest that missing sounds are restored and encoded in the brain as if they were actually present. (in spite of interruptions, one can still “hear” a sound)

Answer 275

principle of good continuation

Question 276

restoration of complex sounds (e.g., music, speech): (T/F) 1) listeners use “higher-order” sources of information, not just auditory information, to restore missing segments 2) gaps in a sound stream are more detrimental if filled with noise rather than with silence 3) with noisy gaps, listeners can reliably specify where the gaps were

Answer 276

1) True 2) False (less detrimental if filled with noise rather than with silence) 3) False (listeners can’t even reliably specify where the gaps were)

Question 277

sensations evoked by solutions in the mouth that contact the receptors on the tongue and the roof of the mouth that then connect to axons in cranial nerves VII, IX, and X

Answer 277

taste

Question 278

the sensation of an odor that is perceived when chewing and swallowing force an odorant in the mouth up behind the palate into the nose; such odor sensations are perceived as originating from the mouth, even though the actual contact of odorant and receptor occurs at the olfactory mucosa

Answer 278

retronasal olfactory sensation

Question 279

The combination of true taste (sweet, salty, sour, bitter) and retronasal olfaction

Answer 279

flavor

Question 280

The branch of cranial nerve VII (the facial nerve) that carries taste information from the anterior, mobile tongue

Answer 280

chorda tympani

Question 281

brain imaging studies show that brain processes odors differently, depending on whether they come from nose or mouth (T/F)

Answer 281

True

Question 282

Two options to enhance flavor: 1. add ________ to intensify sensation of fruit - known to food industry since 1950s 2. add _________ to intensify retronasal olfaction - very recently discovered

Answer 282

1. sugar 2. “volatile” molecules

Question 283

________1_______ is globular cluster of cells that has the function of creating neural signals conveyed to the brain by the taste nerves. They are embedded in structures - _______2_______ and contain taste receptor cells.

Answer 283

1) taste buds 2) papillae (bumps on tongue)

Question 284

Papillae give the tongue its bumpy appearance and come in four major varieties. Which of them contain taste buds? (select all that contain) a) fungiform b) foliate c) filiform d) circumvallate

Answer 284

a) fungiform b) foliate d) circumvallate (only filiform papillae don't contain taste buds)

Question 285

small structures on the tongue that provide most of the bumpy appearance

Answer 285

filiform papillae

Question 286

mushroom-shaped structures distributed most densely on edges of tongue, especially the tip are called ____1____. The average of ____ taste buds per papilla are buried in the surface. {number}

Answer 286

1) fungiform papillae 6

Question 287

folds of tissue containing taste buds, located on the rear of the tongue lateral to the circumvallate papillae

Answer 287

foliate papillae

Question 288

circular structures that form an inverted V on the rear of the tongue (three to five on each side); moundlike structures surrounded by a trench - much larger than fungiform papillae

Answer 288

circumvallate papillae

Question 289

each taste bud can detect multiple kinds of tastants T/F

Answer 289

True coding depends on concentration of different receptors (tongue taste map is a myth)

Question 290

Each taste bud is a ______ of ______________

Answer 290

cluster of elongated cells

Question 291

slender projections on the tips of some taste bud cells that extend into the taste pore; contain the sites that bind to taste substances

Answer 291

microvilli

Question 292

taste bud cells fall into three different groups with different functions: * Type ___ cells → appear to mediate sour taste * Type ___ cells → primarily have housekeeping functions * Type ___ cells → respond to sweet, bitter, or amino acid stimuli

Answer 292

* Type I cells → primarily have housekeeping functions * Type II cells → respond to sweet, bitter, or amino acid stimuli * Type III cells → appear to mediate sour taste

Question 293

we do not yet know which taste receptor cells mediate salty and how they do it (T/F)

Answer 293

True

Question 294

How long is taste receptor's life span?

Answer 294

Couple of days. Replaced by new cells. (This renewal enables the taste system to recover damage, and it explains why our taste systems remain robust even into old age)

Question 295

Extraoral locations for taste receptors - mainly ___________1______________ that mediate sweet and bitter sensations have been found outside the mouth and gut; - in the ____2____, bitter compounds can cause cilia to beat and clear bacteria from airways - in the ____3____, bitter compounds can slow absorption of toxins that are not successfully rejected at the mouth

Answer 295

1) G protein–coupled receptors (GPCRs) 2) upper airways 3) stomach

Question 296

gustatory system pathway: taste buds → cranial nerves → _____________ → (insular) cortex

Answer 296

medulla and thalamus

Question 297

primary cortical processing area for taste; the part of the cortex that first receives taste information

Answer 297

insular cortex

Question 298

secondary taste cortex, also critical for assigning affective value to stimuli, i.e., determining hedonic meaning

Answer 298

orbitofrontal cortex

Question 299

Name for any of the four taste qualities that are generally agreed to describe human taste experience : ______1_______ Name them: ____________2_______________ →our liking (or disliking) for them is hardwired in the brain

Answer 299

1) basic taste 2) sweet, salty, sour, bitter

Question 300

→taste stimuli can be divided into two major groups: 1) salty and sour, mediated by _________________ 2) bitter and sweet, mediated by _________________

Answer 300

1) ion channels (small openings in the membranes of the microvilli) 2) protein receptors (which we now know to be GPCRs in the membranes of the microvilli)

Question 301

candidate for fifth basic taste; the taste sensation produced by monosodium glutamate* (MSG) *important neurotransmitter

Answer 301

umami (controversial: not perceptible in many foods; not a “basic taste” because not everyone reacts in the same way)

Question 302

______ molecules evoke tactile sensations like oily, viscous, creamy, etc. - rats have ______ty acid receptors on their tongues and humans may, too - digesting _______ in the gut produces conditioned preferences for the sensory properties of the food containing ________ (all same word)

Answer 302

fat

Question 303

Survival value of taste: ____1____ - might signal poisons ____2____ - configured to detect acidic solutions that might harm the body ____3____ - our bodies need sodium and sugar to survive

Answer 303

1) bitter 2) sour 3) sweet and salty

Question 304

infants do not show preferences for certain tastes (T/F)

Answer 304

False (infants’ behavior and facial expressions reveal innate preferences for certain foods)

Question 305

theory of taste coding in which each taste fiber carries a particular taste quality (major source of controversy in literature)

Answer 305

labeled lines

Question 306

constant application of certain stimulus temporarily weakens subsequent perception (ex: _________ to salt in saliva affects our ability to taste salt)

Answer 306

adaptation

Question 307

when the taste of one food affects the taste of another (ex: a sour beverage tastes too sour after eating a sweet substance)

Answer 307

cross-adaptation

Question 308

causes the burn; detected by pain receptors (not taste buds!) repeated exposure leads to desensitization of pain receptors, increased ability to tolerate spicy foods

Answer 308

capsaicin (variety of theories why we like it: preservative? signal certain nutrients? endorphin release?) fun fact: no known instances of wild animals enjoying capsaicin

Question 309

collective term for sensory signals from the body (skin, muscles, tendons, joints, and internal receptors)

Answer 309

somatosensation

Question 310

tactile sense, temperature, pain, itch, tickle, pleasant touch

Answer 310

cutaneous senses

Question 311

perception of the position and movement of our limbs in space

Answer 311

kinesthesia

Question 312

perception of the body in space (kinesthesia & vestibular senses)

Answer 312

proprioception

Question 313

touch receptors are connected to ____________ composed of an axon and (optionally) a myelin sheath

Answer 313

“nerve fibers”

Question 314

_____1______ →wide-diameter, myelinated sensory nerve fibers that transmit signals from proprioceptive receptors in muscles and tendons. _____2______ →wide-diameter, myelinated sensory nerve fibers that transmit signals from mechanical stimulation (mechanoreceptor) _____3______→intermediate-sized, myelinated sensory nerve fibers that transmit pain and temperature signals _____4______→narrow-diameter, unmyelinated sensory nerve fibers that transmit pain and temperature signals

Answer 314

1) A-alpha fibers 2) A-beta fibers 3) A-delta fibers 4) C fibers

Question 315

tactile receptors: (T/F) 1) embedded in outer layer (epidermis) and underlying layer (dermis) of skin 2) a tactile receptor consists of a “nerve fiber” and an associated expanded ending 3) all tactile nerve fibers fall into a myelinated class called A-beta fibers

Answer 315

1) True 2) True 3) True

Question 316

The four types of mechanoreceptors can be independently classified according to two attributes describing how they function 1._______________ → the extent of the body area that elicits a receptor response 2._______________ → fast (bursts of action potentials) versus slow

Answer 316

1) size of the receptive field 2) rate of adaptation

Question 317

4 types of tactile receptors: → _____1_____ — fast adaptation, small receptive field (FA I) → _____2_____ — slow adaptation, small receptive field (SA I) → _____3_____ — fast adaptation, large receptive field (FA II) → _____4_____ — slow adaptation, large receptive field (SA II)

Answer 317

1) Meissner corpuscle 2) Merkel disc 3) Pacinian corpuscle 4) Ruffini ending

Question 318

Primary perceptual functions of mechanoreceptor types: 1) Coarse texture and pattern 2) Low-frequency vibration; grasp stability 3) Finger position 4) High-frequency vibration; fine texture

Answer 318

1) SA I (Merkel) 2) FA I (Meissner) 3) SA II (Ruffini) 4) FA II (Pacinian)

Question 319

a sensory receptor located in a muscle that senses its tension →receptors in tendons signal tension in muscles attached to tendons →receptors in joints react when joint is bent to an extreme angle

Answer 319

muscle spindle

Question 320

sensory receptors that signal information about changes in skin temperature are called _____1_____. There are 2 distinct types: _______________2________________

Answer 320

1) Thermoreceptors 2) warmth fibers and cold fibers (thermoreceptors respond when you make contact with an object warmer or colder than your skin)

Question 321

sensory receptors that transmit information about noxious stimulation that causes damage or potential damage to skin are called _______1________. There are two groups of nociceptors: 1) _____2______ - intermediate-sized, myelinated sensory nerve fibers that transmit pain and temperature signals 2) _____3______ - narrow-diameter, unmyelinated sensory nerve fibers that transmit pain and temperature signals

Answer 321

1) nociceptors 2) A-delta fibers 3) C fibers painful events have two stages—quick sharp pain (A-delta fibers) followed by throbbing sensation (C fibers) →difference in speeds is due to myelination

Question 322

Nociceptive neurons detect the ___________ and ___________ stimulation that produces pain

Answer 322

thermal and chemical

Question 323

thermoTRP channel is thermally sensitive __________________ ion channel found in sensory neurons

Answer 323

Transient Receptor Potential

Question 324

classic categories of discriminative touch (4): _______1________ → newly uncovered fifth component of touch: ______2______

Answer 324

1) tactile, thermal, pain, and itch 2) pleasant touch

Question 325

Pleasant touch is mediated by unmyelinated peripheral C fibers known as ________1_________. They respond best to slowly moving, lightly applied forces (e.g., petting) →processed in _____2_____ rather than S1 or S2

Answer 325

1) “C tactile afferents” (CT afferents) - not related to pain or itch 2) orbitofrontal cortex

Question 326

Touch sensations travel as far as 2 meters from skin and muscles of feet to the brain, and information must pass through _____________.

Answer 326

spinal cord

Question 327

Axons of various tactile receptors combine into single _____1_____. →_____2_____ - a theory of sensory coding in which each nerve fiber carries a particular stimulus quality; they become interconnected in _____3_____, allowing complex patterns to emerge

Answer 327

1) nerve trunks 2) labeled lines 3) spinal cord

Question 328

Axons from touch fibers enter the spinal cord in the _____1_____. It is organized into multiple layers called _____2_____

Answer 328

1) dorsal horn (every skin mechanoreceptor projects into the dorsal horn) 2) laminae

Question 329

Inputs to spinal cord are organized ______1______ —adjacent areas of the skin project to adjacent areas in the spinal cord. Complex calculations that enrich touch sensations occur in the _____2_____.

Answer 329

1) somatotopically 2) dorsal horn

Question 330

There are two major pathways from spinal cord to brain: ______1______ carries most of the information about skin temperature and pain (slower) ______2______ carries signals from skin, muscles, tendons, and joints

Answer 330

1) spinothalamic pathway 2) dorsal column-medial lemniscal (DCML) pathway

Question 331

Touch sensations are represented somatotopically in the brain in _________________ and _________________.

Answer 331

primary somatosensory cortex called S1and secondary somatosensory cortex called S2 (brain contains several sensory maps of body in different areas of S1 and also in S2)

Question 332

Pain is generally a subjective experience with two components: _____________________________________

Answer 332

sensation of the painful stimulus and the emotional response to it (Areas S1 and S2 are responsible for sensory aspects of pain)

Question 333

Researchers have identified areas of brain that correspond to more cognitive aspects of painful experiences: _____1_____ - a region of the brain associated with the perceived unpleasantness of pain sensations _____2_____ - a region of the brain concerned with cognition and executive control; may contribute to pain sensitization

Answer 333

1) anterior cingulate 2) prefrontal cortex

Question 334

_____1_____ is a description of the system that transmits pain that incorporates modulating signals from the brain. Bottom-up pain signals from _____2_____ can be blocked via a circuit located in the spinal cord. Neurons in the _____3_____ actively inhibit pain transmission

Answer 334

1) gate control theory 2) nociceptors 3) dorsal horn

Question 335

decreasing pain sensation during conscious experience

Answer 335

analgesia

Question 336

chemicals released in body to block release or uptake of neurotransmitters transmitting pain sensation to brain

Answer 336

endogenous opiates

Question 337

Hairs or monofilaments of varying diameters are pressed against the skin to see if the pressure can be sensed → traditionally measured with ___________ → the smaller the diameter of the monofilament, the less force applied to the skin before it buckles

Answer 337

von Frey hairs

Question 338

Sensitivity to mechanical pressure varies over the body → _____1_____ is most sensitive → _____2_____ next most sensitive → _____3_____ less sensitive

Answer 338

1) face 2) trunk and upper extremities (arms and fingers) 3) lower extremities (thigh, calf, and foot)

Question 339

what is the smallest raised element that can be felt on an otherwise smooth surface?

Answer 339

people can detect a dot only 10 nanometers high!

Question 340

People are also sensitive to changes in pressure over time / tactile vibration T/F

Answer 340

True

Question 341

The minimum distance at which two stimuli are just perceptible as separate is called _____1______. Spatial acuity varies across the body; _____2_____ show the highest acuity

Answer 341

1) two-point threshold 2) extremities (fingertips, face, and toes)

Question 342

For sighted people, tactile sensitivity declines with age (T/F) For blind people, tactile sensitivity increases into older age (T/F)

Answer 342

1) True 2) False, it remains high (= and not >) this implies that people who lose sight later in life may not be able to read Braille because their sensitivity has declined too much

Question 343

brain predicts and attenuates the perception of the self-generated input

Answer 343

sensory attenuation

Question 344

a tactile illusion that is created when the eyes are closed, two fingers of one hand are crossed, and a small object such as an acorn is pressed (especially by another person) into the cleft between the tips of the crossed fingers; brain fails to account for crossing of body parts

Answer 344

Aristotle's illusion

Question 345

a tactile illusion that points appear closer together if presented rapidly in time

Answer 345

rabbit illusion (like “rabbit hopping up the arm”)

Question 346

Name 4 tactile illusions.

Answer 346

body-swapping illusion, rubber hand illusion, rabbit illusion, Aristotle's illusion

Question 347

the sense of smell

Answer 347

olfaction

Question 348

the sense of taste

Answer 348

gustation

Question 349

sniffing in and perceiving odors through our nostrils, which occurs when we are smelling something that is in the air

Answer 349

orthonasal olfaction

Question 350

perceiving odors through the mouth while breathing and chewing (this is what gives us the experience of flavor)

Answer 350

retronasal olfaction

Question 351

the translation of a chemical stimulus into a smell sensation

Answer 351

odor

Question 352

a molecule that is defined by its physiochemical characteristics, which are capable of being translated by the nervous system into the perception of smell

Answer 352

odorant

Question 353

To be smelled, odorants must be: ____________________________. (3)

Answer 353

→ volatile (able to float through the air) → small → hydrophobic (repellent to water)

Question 354

a narrow space at the back of the nose into which air flows, where the main olfactory epithelium is located

Answer 354

olfactory cleft

Question 355

a secretory mucous membrane in the human nose whose primary function is to detect odorants in inhaled air (the “retina” of the nose)

Answer 355

olfactory epithelium

Question 356

olfactory epithelium contains 3 types of cells: 1) __________________ → the main cell type in the olfactory epithelium; they are small neurons located beneath a watery mucous layer in the epithelium 2) __________________ → precursor cells to 1 3) __________________ → provide metabolic and physical support for 1

Answer 356

1) olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs) 2) basal cells 3) supporting cells

Question 357

any of the hairlike protrusions on the dendrites of OSNs; contain receptor sites for odorant molecules; are the first structures involved in olfactory signal transduction

Answer 357

cilium (pl. cilia)

Question 358

_____1_____ is the region on the cilia of OSNs where odorant molecules bind. The mucosa contains ___2___ types of ORs and about ___3___ of each type (numbers)

Answer 358

1) olfactory receptor (OR) 2) 400 [our genes code for about 1000 ORs (~600 are nonfunctional)] 3) 10 000 extra info: it takes seven or eight odor molecules binding to a receptor to initiate an action potential; it takes about 40 nerve impulses for a smell sensation to be reported

Question 359

an extension of the brain just above the nose, where olfactory information is first processed

Answer 359

olfactory bulb

Question 360

a bony structure riddled with tiny holes that separates the nose from the brain at the level of the eyebrows

Answer 360

cribriform plate

Question 361

The first pair of cranial nerves; the axons of the OSNs bundle together after passing through the cribriform plate to form it

Answer 361

olfactory nerves

Question 362

any of the spherical conglomerates containing the incoming axons of the olfactory sensory neurons; each OSN converges onto two of them (one medial, one lateral)

Answer 362

glomerulus (pl. glomeruli)

Question 363

the bundle of axons of the mitral and tufted cells within the olfactory bulb that sends odor information to the primary olfactory cortex

Answer 363

olfactory tract

Question 364

the neural area where olfactory information is first processed, which includes the amygdala, parahippocampal gyrus, and interconnected areas, and also entorhinal cortex

Answer 364

primary olfactory cortex

Question 365

primary olfactory cortex includes ___________, __________________, and interconnected areas, and also ___________________

Answer 365

amygdala, parahippocampal gyrus, and interconnected areas, and also entorhinal cortex

Question 366

a phylogenetically old cortical region that provides the major sensory association input into the hippocampus; receives direct projections from olfactory regions

Answer 366

entorhinal cortex

Question 367

the group of neural structures that includes the olfactory cortex, the amygdala, the hippocampus, the piriform cortex, and the entorhinal cortex (olfaction is unique among the senses for its direct and intimate connection to)

Answer 367

limbic system (Olfaction’s unique connection to the limbic system explains why scents tend to have such strong emotional associations)

Question 368

Odorants can stimulate somatosensory system through ________1________ (touch, pain, temperature receptors). These sensations are mediated by the ________2_______.

Answer 368

1) polymodal nociceptors 2) trigeminal nerve (cranial nerve V)

Question 369

It is possible to distinguish between sensations traveling up cranial nerve I from olfactory receptors and those traveling up cranial nerve V from somatosensory receptors. (T/F)

Answer 369

False (It is impossible to distinguish between them)

Question 370

______1_____ is the current dominant biochemical theory for how chemicals come to be perceived as specific odors. →contends that different scents- as a function of odorant-shape to OR-shape fit- activate different arrays of olfactory receptors in the _____2_____. →these various arrays produce specific firing patterns of neurons in the ____3____, which then determine the particular scent we perceive

Answer 370

1) Shape-pattern theory 2) olfactory epithelium 3) olfactory bulb

Question 371

the ability to remember whether or not we’ve smelled an odor before

Answer 371

recognition (discrimination ≠ recognition!) discrimination - tell the difference between

Question 372

psychophysical method for determining the concentration of a stimulus required for detection at a threshold level. →stimulus is presented in increasing concentrations until detection is indicated →then, concentration is decreased until detection ceases →ascending and descending sequence is repeated several times and concentrations at which reversals occur are averaged to determine threshold detection level

Answer 372

staircase method

Question 373

discrimination test in which participant is given three odors to smell, two of which are the same and one that is different →participant must identify the odd odor →the order of the three odors is varied and tested several times to increase accuracy

Answer 373

triangle test

Question 374

2 different metrics: 1) _____________ of an odor from a list of verbal descriptors 2) _____________ - free recall of the correct name for the odor (tip-of-the-nose phenomenon)

Answer 374

1) recognition 2) identification

Question 375

Sense of smell and language may be so disconnected because: (T/F) * olfactory information is not integrated in thalamus prior to processing in cortex * majority of olfactory processing occurs in right side of brain, while language processing occurs in left side of brain

Answer 375

1) True 2) True (both hypothesis)

Question 376

the total inability to smell, most often resulting from sinus illness or head trauma

Answer 376

anosmia (age: by 85, 50% of population is effectively anosmic)

Question 377

Olfactory detection thresholds depend on several factors: (T/F) 1) genetic variability accounts for differences in perception among people with a “normal” sense of smell and those with a specific anosmia 2) women generally have lower thresholds than men (higher detection), especially during the ovulatory period of menstrual cycles. Sensitivity is also heightened during pregnancy. 3) professional perfumers and wine tasters can distinguish up to 20,000 odors

Answer 377

1) True 2) False (women generally have lower thresholds than men, especially during the ovulatory period of menstrual cycles, but sensitivity is *not* heightened during pregnancy) 3) False (they can distinguish up to 100,000 odors)

Question 378

the biochemical phenomenon that occurs after continuous exposure to an odorant, whereby the receptors stop responding to the odorant and detection ceases

Answer 378

receptor adaptation (sense of smell is essentially a change detector)

Question 379

the psychological process by which, after long-term exposure to an odorant, one is no longer able to detect that odorant or has very diminished detection ability (when we live with an odor, we cognitively habituate to it and no longer react to it, or we show a very diminished response to it)

Answer 379

cognitive (olfactory) habituation (unlike receptor adaptation, which can be undone in a few minutes, cognitive habituation requires weeks to reverse, even for pungent trigeminal stimulants)

Question 380

We cannot smell while we are asleep. (T/F)

Answer 380

True (attention increases our ability to detect odors and it is cut off during sleep, so is our ability to respond to odors)

Question 381

the liking dimension of odor perception, typically measured with scales pertaining to an odorant’s perceived pleasantness, familiarity, and intensity

Answer 381

Olfactory hedonics

Question 382

Olfactory hedonics: 1) ___________ - we tend to like odors we have smelled many times before 2) ________ has a more complicated relationship with odor liking: either inverted U-shape function or linearly decreasing function

Answer 382

1) familiarity 2) intensity

Question 383

Are odors really the best cues to memory? (T/F) 1) other modalities can elicit memory as well (e.g., vision, touch, taste) 2) memories triggered by odor cues are distinctive in their emotionality 3) emotion and evocativeness of odor-elicited memories make them especially accurate

Answer 383

1) True 2) True 3) False (emotion and evocativeness of odor-elicited memories *lead to false impression* that such memories are especially accurate)

Question 384

autobiographical memories activated by the senses, particularly smell and taste, can be among the most potent and influential: _________1_________ 1) the ____2____ by which certain odors are encountered- rendering minimal interference from multiple associations 2) very strong ____3____ in olfaction- the first association you acquire to an odor is extremely hard to undo, and subsequent associations are very hard to make

Answer 384

1) the Proust effect 2) low frequency 3) proactive interference effects

Question 385

olfaction is processed in ______1______, which is also the cortical area for assigning affective value (i.e., hedonic judgment)

Answer 385

1) orbitofrontal cortex (these two factors help explain the increased emotionality of smells as opposed to other senses)

Question 386

In animals that rely on smell for survival, the olfactory system consists of two subdivisions: ________1________ and _______2_______. In order for the ________2________ to be activated, a structure called the ______3______ needs to be engaged. In animals that possess it, its primary function is to detect _____4______ (chemicals capable of acting like hormones outside the body of the secreting individual; not odors; chemicals that may or may not have a smell)

Answer 386

1) the main olfactory bulb (MOB) 2) the accessory olfactory bulb (AOB) 3) vomeronasal organ (VNO; sometimes also referred to as Jacobson’s organ) 4) pheromones

Question 387

a more theory-neutral word than “pheromone” should be used when discussing humans. ___________ is any of various chemicals emitted by humans that are detected by the olfactory system and that may have some effect on the mood, behavior, hormonal status, and/or sexual arousal of other humans.

Answer 387

chemosignal

Question 388

The perceptual attribute of colors that enables them to be classed as similar to red, green or blue, or some thing in between

Answer 388

Hue

Question 389

The distance between the lens (or mirror) and the viewed object, in meters.

Answer 389

focal distance

Question 390

A unit of measurement of the optical power of a lens. It is equal to the reciprocal of the focal length, in meters. A 2-________ lens will bring parallel rays of light into focus at ½ meter (50 cm).

Answer 390

diopter

Question 391

An opacity of the crystalline lens.

Answer 391

cataract

Question 392

The condition in which there is no refractive error, because the refractive power of the eye is perfectly matched to the length of the eyeball.

Answer 392

emmetropia

Question 393

The back layer of the retina is called _____1____ what the eye doctor sees through an _______2_______ (device)

Answer 393

1) fundus 2) ophthalmoscope

Question 394

Four primary ways in which the visual system adjusts to changes in illumination:

Answer 394

pupil size, photopigment regeneration, the duplex retina, and neural circuitry

Question 395

scientific theory of the relationship between mind and matter

Answer 395

Psychophysics

Question 396

__________________________ relates physical quantity to the probability of detecting it

Answer 396

psychometric function

Question 397

_______1_________ is cloud of moving dots where some of the dots move coherently in a specific direction and others move randomly. _______2_______ the proportion of dots that move in a consistent and specified direction

Answer 397

1) Random dot kinematogram (RDK) 2) coherence

Question 398

A graphical plot that illustrates the performance of a binary classifier model at varying threshold values

Answer 398

ROC curve (Receiver-Operating-Charachteristic)

Question 399

a way of representing information about a feature through the simultaneous activity of a large set (population) of neurons sensitive to the feature

Answer 399

Population coding

Question 400

The efficient coding hypothesis

Answer 400

neurons maximize the amount of information that they encode about sensory inputs, subject to some constraints, such as metabolic cost, dynamic range, or internal noise

Question 401

the property of being directionally dependent

Answer 401

Anisotropy (e.g. Oblique effect)

Question 402

a formal, mathematical system that combines information about the current stimulus with prior knowledge about the world

Answer 402

The Bayesian observer

Question 403

The universal law of generalization

Answer 403

the probability that an organism perceives two stimuli as similar typically declines exponentially with the difference on the perceptual scale

Question 404

the internal representation of the pre-saccadic scene available after the eye movement

Answer 404

Transsaccadic memory

Question 405

reflects the memory of coarse peripheral information giving a “head-start” to object identification and perceptual decision-making

Answer 405

Transsaccadic preview effect (TPE)

Question 406

averaging of feature information extracted before and after the saccade

Answer 406

Transsaccadic integration

Question 407

when an eye movement fails to bring gaze to the desired saccade target, it is often followed by a fast and automatic second eye movement, which typically brings gaze closer to the intended goal

Answer 407

Corrective Saccades

Question 408

perceptual reports are negatively correlated with previous stimuli and responses (serial dependence)

Answer 408

Contrastive effects

Question 409

perceptual reports are positively correlated with previous stimuli and responses (serial dependence)

Answer 409

Assimilation