Praxis 2019 Flashcards
(179 cards)
1
Q
Data- Based Decision Making (RTI/MTSS)
A
o Involves the collection of formal and informal information to help the student
o Background data collection, techniques, and problem identification level:You must know various methods of data collection to help identify anddefinethe problem.
o 2.Screening level:Data can be used to help identify at-risk students and make decisions about students who struggle with academic work.
o 3.Progress monitoring and RTI level:Data are used to determine effectiveness of the interventions (RTI) once a student is identified.
o 4.Formal assessment level (special education evaluation):Cognitive, social, and emotional data are derived from various sources, but especially from formal standardized measures.
2
Q
Data is used for the following needs:
A
o To identify the problem and plan interventions
o To increase or decrease levels of intervention
o To help determine whether interventions are implemented with fidelity
o To decide whether interventions are related to positive student outcomes (effectiveness)
*To plan individualized instruction and strategic long-term educational planning
3
Q
When a struggling student has been identified already through various means, the initial data should..
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Define the problem
4
Q
Informal Data
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o Student files and records o Staff interviews and comments about the student o Medical records and reports o Review of previous interventions o Developmental history
5
Q
Structured, unstructured and semi-structured interviews
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o Structured – highest validity, rigid and is given the same way all the time.
o Unstructured- help put the student at ease, the less structure you put on the child the more they will open up. Responses can be difficult to interpret.
o Semi-structured – combines the best of both. Allows for flexibility but also follow up questions.
6
Q
Observation Techniques:
Whole- Interval Recording
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Whole-interval recording: Behavior is only recorded when it occurs during the entiretime interval. (This is good for continuous behaviors or behaviors occurring in short duration.)
7
Q
Frequency or event recording
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Record thenumberof behaviors that occurred during a specific period.
8
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Duration Recording
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refers to thelength of timethe specific behavior lasts.
9
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Latency recording
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Time between onset of stimulus or signal that initiates a specific behavior.
10
Q
Time-sampling interval recording
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Select a time period for observation, divide the period into a number of equal intervals, and record whether or not behavior occurs. Time sampling is effective when the beginning and end of behavior are difficult to determine or when only a brief period is available for observation.
11
Q
Partial-interval recording
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Behavior is scored if it occurs during any part of the time interval. Multiple episodes of behavior in a single time interval are counted as one score or mark. Partial-interval recording is effective when behaviors occur at a relatively low rate or for inconsistent durations.
12
Q
Momentary time sampling
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Behavior is scored as present or absent only during the moment that a timed interval begins. This is the least biased estimate of behavior as it actually occurs.
13
Q
Universal Screening Measures
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o CBM (Curriculum Based Measures) – must be reliable and only used if they align with local norms, benchmarks and standards. Ex. Dibels
o CogAT (Cognitive Assessment Test) – Cognitive measure that is group administered
o Fluency screeners – letter-naming fluency, phoneme segmentation and reading fluency.
o State educational agencies – formal group administered test given to every student every year.
STEEP (Systems of Enhanced Educational performance – Conduct CBMs serval times a year in reading, math and writing.
14
Q
Subskill mastery measurement (SMM) & General outcome measurement (GOM)
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o SMM – Info to measure of the intervention is effective. Collected frequently, even daily.
o GOM- collected to see of the student is making progress towards long rage goals. Recorded once a week.
15
Q
Three levels of Analysis
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o Variability in data – centers on the effectiveness of the intervention and whether an intervention is effective or not is defined by its ability to change behavior. There are also confounding variables, these include uncontrolled subject and environmental variables. There is also measurement error.
o Level - Levelrefers to the average performance within a condition.
o Trend - When a student’s performance systematically increases or decreases across time, then analyzing the trend in the data is important. The pattern of change in a student’s behavioracross timecan be described astrend.
16
Q
Baseline RTI data
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o One rule for baseline data is that there should be no new highs (spikes) or lows forthreeconsecutive data points.
o Another rule is that80% of the data points should fall within 15% of the mean (average)line or, in the case of increasing or decreasing data points, within 15% of the trend line.
o Some researchers recommend collecting a minimum number of baseline data points, approximately three to five points.
o In schools, practical considerations often affect the amount of data that can be collected.
17
Q
A comprehensive evaluation includes formal and informal data in the following
domains
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o Cognitive o Achievement o Communication (speech–language) o Motor skills o Adaptive skills o Social, emotional, and behavioral functioning o Sensory processing
18
Q
FBA & Steps
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• FBA – Identify the purpose or function of the behavior
o Describe problem behavior (operationally define problem).
o Perform the assessment. (Review records; complete systematic observations; and interview student, teacher, parents, and other needed individuals.)
o Evaluate assessment results. (Examine patterns of behavior and determine the purpose or function of the target behaviors.)
o Develop a hypothesis.
o Formulate an intervention plan.
o Start or implement the intervention.
o Evaluate effectiveness of intervention plan.
19
Q
CBM
A
o CBM - CBM refers to the specific forms of criterion-referenced assessments in which curriculum goals and objectives serve as the “criteria” for assessment items. The key to CBM is the examination of student performanceacross timeto evaluate intervention effectiveness.
20
Q
Ecological Assessments
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o Ecological assessments are just as important as formal or standardized assessments. Ecological assessments help to determine the “goodness of fit” between the student and the learning environment.
o •An important acronym to remember isICEL. ICEL stands for instruction, curriculum, environment, and learner. During an ecological assessment, the evaluator must review key elements of the four aspects of ICEL. For example, a school psychologist analyzes work samples, prior grades, and assessments. Information from parents, teachers, and the student is collected. Finally, authentic assessments include observational data of the target student during instruction and in other environments.
21
Q
• Assessment of Non-English Speaking (ELL)
A
o you must assess the child’s speaking, reading, and writing abilities while considering the following:
o a.Developmental history and all languages that are spoken and heard
o b.Language dominance (the language the student has heard the most in his or her environment)
o c.Language preference
o The disorder must be present in the child’s native language (L1) and English (L2).
o b.Testing must be conducted in the native or strongest language.
o Normed on the appropriate cultural group
o The child should be compared with members of the same cultural group who speak the dialect.
♣ (use of an interpreter) is not the best practice and is psychometrically weak if the test is not normed on the cultural group being assessed. score validityremains loweven when the interpreter is highly trained and experienced.
22
Q
Premack Principle
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theory posits that a lower level behavior can be shaped by a higher level (desired) behavior. For example, a student is not allowed to play outside unless he does his homework first.
23
Q
Immediacy
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This is a key behaviorism concept. Consequences (e.g., rewards) should occur immediately after the behavior in order to be an effective reinforcement.
24
Q
Negative reinforcement
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This is often confused with punishment. Unlike punishment, a behaviorincreasesunder negative reinforcement. A stimulus is removed, which causes a behavior to increase.
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Positive reinforcement
A behavior occurs, a rewarding stimulus is provided, and the behavior increases.
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Fixed ratio reinforcement
A specific number of behaviors must occur before a reinforcer is given.
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Variable ratio
The number of behaviors needed in order to receive the reinforcer varies. Variable schedules of reinforcement, once a behavior is established by this method, are resistant to change.
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Frequency, duration, and intensity
These vital aspects of behavior are measurable and are key parts in all behavior modification plans for students.
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Shaping
o Shaping is a technique that creates a behavior by reinforcing approximations of the desired target behavior.
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Extinction
o Eliminating the reinforcers or rewards for the behavior terminates the problem behavior.
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Punishment
The introduction of an undesirable stimulus that decreases a behavior.
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Began the foundation for INTELLIGENCE
Charles Spearman
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Who created the first intelligence test
Stanford Binet
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Thurstone’s primary mental ability
• He claimed there were at least 11 primary mental abilities. Spearman believed these abilities and dimensions were causal properties of behavior and he did not view intelligence as a unitary construct such as “g.”
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CHC
gf, gc, gv, gs, gsm, glr
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Phonology
System of sounds that a language uses. Note that people commonly confuse phonemic awareness with phonological processing. Phonemic awareness is a component of the broader construct phonological processing.
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Phoneme
The basic unit of a language’s sound or phonetic system. It is the smallest sound units that affect meaning. Example: /s/.
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Morpheme
Language’s smallest units of meaning, such as prefix, suffix, or root word. Example: “pre” in the word “preheat.”
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Semantics
he study of word meanings and combinations, such as in phrases, clauses, and sentences.
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Syntax
Prescribes how words may combine into phrases, clauses, and sentences.
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Pragmatics
A set of rules that specify appropriate language for particular social contexts.
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Key person to study Language development
Noam Chomsky is a key person to study as he is widely known as an expert on language development. He proposed that children are born with an innate mental structure that guides their acquisition of language and grammar.
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Brain areas involved in language
The left hemisphere of the cerebral cortex plays a primary role in language.
* Broca’s area: Located in the frontal portion of the left hemisphere, this brain area supports grammatical processing and expressive language production.
* Wernicke’s area: Located in the medial temporal lobe, this section of the brain supports word-meaning comprehension and receptive language.
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Cognitive abilities tests
Cognitive tests are norm-referenced scientific instruments that psychologists use to measure human abilities that are strongly correlated to a host of outcomes. Examples of common cognitive abilities tests include the WISC-V, SB-V, and DAS-II.
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Formative evaluations
There are specific assessments used to determine a student’s strengths and weaknesses. Formative evaluations typically evaluate the academic areas in which students are doing well and areas in which they are doing poorly.
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Summative evaluations
These provide a review and summary of a person’s accomplishments to date
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Domain-referenced and criterion-referenced tests
These are tests concerned with the level mastery of a defined skill set. Their purpose is solely to assess a student’s standing on a defined standard (e.g., criterion) or performance of a specific skill.
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Percentile ranks
A percentile rank of a score is the percentage of scores (students) in its frequency distribution that are equal to or lower than it. An example is a student with a score at the 33rd percentile who has scored better than or equal to 33% of those who took the same test.
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Standard scores
Ss are psychometrically sound measures and are used to describe a person’s position within the normal curve (bell curve) of human traits. These scores express the position of a score in relation to the average (mean) of other scores. SSs use standard deviations (SDs) in their formulas and place a student’s score as below average, average, or above average. Mainstream cognitive test batteries typically use an SS with a mean of 100 and an SD of 15 (e.g., SS = 85–115 is average)
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Z-scores
Z-scores have a mean of 0 and an SD of 1. They are not used much in education or in education reports.
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T-scores
T-scores are common scores and they have a mean of 50 and an SD of 10 (T = 40–60 is average)
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Scaled scores
Ss are commonly reported and they typically have a mean of 10 with an SD of 3 (Ss = 7–13 is average).
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Variance
A measure of how far a set of numbers is spread out.
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SD
A measure of the spread of a set of values from the mean value. The SD is the square root of the variance. It is a measure of dispersion. SD is used as a measure of the spread or scatter of a group of scores as a way to express the relative position of a single score in a distribution. As mentioned previously, most common CogAT batteries express their full-scale SS with a mean of 100 and an SD of 15 to indicate the “average range” (85–115 = average).
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Reliability:
Reliability refers to standardized test results and scores that are consistent and stable across time.
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Reliability coefficient:
This statistic illustrates the consistency of a score or the stability of a score. An appropriate reliability coefficient for standardized tests should generally be around or above r = 0.80. The higher the reliability coefficient, the better.
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Alternate and parallel forms
Alternate forms of a test should be thought of as two tests built according to the same specifications, but composed of separate samples from the defined behavior domain. This method takes into account variation resulting from tasks and correlation between two test forms to provide the reliability coefficient.
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Split half
Take a full test and create two tests from it, being careful to share difficult and easy items on both tests. Both tests are administered, even on the same day, and the scores on both tests are correlated.
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Internal consistency reliability
An estimate of the reliability of the total test is developed from an analysis of the statistics of the individual test items. Each test item is compared with the total set of items. This statistic is expressed in terms of Cronbach’s alpha.
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Interrater reliability
The reliability of people administrating the test is increased by increasing the number of raters or judges. Rater’s results on an assessment should be highly congruent for the test to be considered reliable.
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Validity
Like reliability, validity is vital to a test’s effectiveness and usefulness. Validity regards the degree to which the test actually measures what it claims it measures. To put it another way, validity is the degree to which evidence and theory support the interpretation of test scores. As stated with reliability coefficients, validity coefficients are acceptable if they are generally above 0.80.
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Criterion-related validity
Criterion validity concerns the correlation between two measures (tests) that are designed to measure human traits. If two tests measure the same trait, the correlation between the tests should obviously be higher. If one of the two tests is not designed to measure the same trait, the correlation should be lower between the two tests.
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Convergent validity
Convergent validity is determined when a test is correlated with another test that has a similar purpose and measures the same trait. For example, if a test that measures attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) correlates highly or “converges” with another well-known test of ADHD, then the test is said to have good validity.
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Divergent validity
Divergent validity is established by correlating two tests that measure two different traits. For example, a test that measures ADHD should have a low correlation to a test that measures depression.
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NASP & Interpreters
NASP does not encourage the use of standardized tests with interpreters if the test is not appropriately normed.
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False postive & False Negative
False positives: A student performs well on a test, but in actuality, the student is failing in the authentic environment. For example, a student scores high on a reading comprehension test, but has difficulty reading in class.
• False negatives: A student performs poorly on a test, but in actuality, the student is making acceptable progress in the authentic environment with little or no problem.
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Interagency and School Community Collaboration
Child centered: Direct service to the student such as tutoring or mentoring
* Family centered: Service to parents or entire families such as parenting workshops, family counseling, and family assistance
* School centered: Donation of money or equipment, staff development, or classroom assistance
* Community centered: Outreach programs, artwork and science exhibits, and after-school programs
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Consultation With Interpreters
The use of interpreters is encouraged and necessary to build rapport with families and students who do not speak English. When using interpreters, be mindful of speech rate and use brief, simple statements so that the interpreter can relay the information efficiently.
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Refer back to pg. 38 to look at RTI Pyramid!
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Basic Principles of Effective Instruction
1. Activate a student’s prior knowledge before teaching.
2. Make connections between new learning and a student’s current knowledge. Make learning relevant to the student’s life.
3. Do not overload students’ abilities when teaching new concepts, especially their working memory. Working memory capacity is typically limited to four to seven bits of information.
4. Provide the optimum level of instruction, not too hard and not too easy. Have the student experience some success and some challenge. This concept is related to the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).
5. Model desired responses, have explicit expectations, and provide exemplars of completed work.
6. Allow time for practice. Provide corrective feedback and frequent practice of skills. Have cognitive rest periods (days) between teaching new concepts.
7. Feedback needs to be provided in an immediate and positive manner.
8. Multimodal teaching is good practice. Incorporate “learning by doing” when possible. Use visual, auditory, and kinesthetic modalities.
9. Student learning develops as target skills progress through phases: Acquisition → proficiency → generalization → adaptation.
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Specific Instructional Strategies
explicit and systematic approach
students are told specifically what they are learning before their lesson starts every class period. Next, students are told why they need to learn the new concept(s). Third, the teacher models the new skill or concept. After new information is presented, students will practice with teacher feedback. Finally, students practice the skill over multiple trials. Explicit instruction also includes breaking down tasks or new concepts into small manageable steps. The steps to effective instruction involve the “I do, we do, you do” approach.
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Differentiated instruction
is critical when teaching groups. It requires educators to respond to the individualized needs and abilities of all learners within the regular education environment.
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Small-group instruction
allows the teacher to monitor student mastery of educational concepts, provide instant feedback, and accommodate individual learning needs.
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Cooperative learning
proffered by the famous theorist Vygotsky, is a proven teaching technique. Students work collaboratively to learn new concepts. Students develop a greater understanding and respect for individual learning differences.
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Student engagement time
is a predictor of academic achievement and is defined as the amount of time that students are actively engaged in learning. Students need to be interested in the new concept or skill being taught. If students understand the reasons why learning the new concept is important and how it relates to their lives, they will be engaged. Students should have input in how they would like to be taught, and a teacher needs to create a safe classroom atmosphere that fosters free discussion (e.g., classroom management).
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Study skills
are critical to improving student achievement. Metacognition is an essential study skill that requires a high degree of self-awareness. Metacognition is thinking and reflecting about learning, what is known, and what is not known. A well-known and time-tested metacognitive technique used to build reading comprehension is SQ3R, which stands for survey, question, read, recite, and review.
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RTI Tiers (1,2&3)
Behavioral
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Example of Tier 1 intervention: Positive behavior support (PBS) key idea . Establish and define clear and consistent schoolwide expectations.
An example of Tier 2 intervention is the bully prevention program.
Raise adult and student awareness about bullying issues. Staff commitment is critical. Key intervention: Increase adult monitoring on the playground, in lunch areas, hallways, and other open unstructured areas.Zero-tolerance policies are discouraged.
Example of Tier 3 intervention: Individual counseling that uses CBT and role-playing of correct behavior. A functional behavioral assessment (FBA) may also be employed to examine the specific antecedents, actions, and consequences of the behavior.
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Ethical Principles of Counseling
1. Obtain parental consent if a student is to receive ongoing services. A student can be seen before consent is acquired if safety is an issue.
2. Students should be informed of confidentiality and exceptions to confidentiality from the beginning of counseling sessions.
• Exceptions:
Harm to self or others
Safety concerns
Student request
3. Before counseling commences, explicit goals should be stated and progress on goals should be monitored.
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Major Types of Individual Counseling, Interventions, and Theoretical Approaches
CBT
Cognitive therapy
CBT is based on the premise that thoughts influence feelings and ultimately control behavior. CBT is one of the most highly effective interventions supported by research. Practitioners typically intervene with a student’s faulty beliefs (cognition) and role-play appropriate behaviors for given situations. Helps in PTSD and Anxiety disorders.
Cognitive therapy: This therapy is related to reality therapy, which was developed by William Glasser. Cognitive therapy’s emphasis is on cognition and beliefs. Behavioral interventions, although important, are not the focus with this type of counseling. The psychologist tries to get the student to understand and think about the connection between behaviors and consequences.
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father of behaviorism
Skinner
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Humanistic approaches:
Developed by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers, behavioral change cannot occur without a strong positive rapport built on unconditional positive regard and empathy. Students want to be understood by a trusted adult before they can move to change their lives.
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Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT):
DBT is a type of a cognitive behavioral approach that is designed to build specific skills to help students cope with various stressors. DBT attempts to build skills related to four primary areas: mindfulness, stress tolerance, interpersonal skills (assertiveness), and emotional regulation.
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Social learning theory
states that people learn not only through reinforcers and punishers (i.e., B. F. Skinner’s behaviorism), but also through observation. Albert Bandura illustrated that children can act aggressively by merely watching the violent behavior of others. The keyword to remember for Bandura’s research is “modeling.”
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Group Counseling
During group counseling, a therapist can employ many of the same techniques used in individual counseling. The following are important beneficial characteristics of group counseling:
* Is time efficient
* Often found within the Tier 2 intervention level
* Promotes social learning
* Promotes skill generalization
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Service Learning
Having children help or serve others is a very effective learning tool because it teaches children in an “authentic” or real-life environment. Many times, service learning teaches students social–emotional competency and empathy for those they are helping.
• Three benefits related to service learning:
1. Learning is effective because students are engaged and curious about issues they experience in the real world.
2. Students remember lessons that they learn within the community context because they are real and relevant.
3. Service learning connects students to personal relationships and promotes prosocial actions that make a difference in people’s lives.
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ABA
Usually used for Autistic children
ABA uses systematic instruction and repeated trials to change behavior. ABA is usually highly structured and can use adult-directed strategies, as seen in Lovaas training or discrete trial training.
Systematic strategies may include incidental teaching, structured teaching, pivotal response training, functional communication training, and the Picture Exchange Communication System.
Discrete trial instruction as part of ABA is a systematic way of teaching that involves a series of repeated trials to teach and maintain cognitive, behavioral, or social skills.
Task analysis (key component of behaviorism) involves breaking down a skill into smaller steps that are easy to teach. Prompts are used to guide learners toward correct responses when teaching tasks. In the beginning, prompts are more obvious and then gradually fade away (e.g., fading techniques). Types of prompts include physical (hand over hand), gestural (pointing), modeling, and visual.
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Behavioral Interventions
As mentioned in the previous chapter, best practice in behavioral management is to conduct an FBA on a student who has behavioral problems and modify the environment as much as possible. In short, emphasize decreasing the triggering event (antecedents) and focus on a “goodness of fit” between the student and the environment.
Understand differences between the behaviorist model and the cognitive model. The behaviorist model involves the structures of the environment and provides reinforcement and punishment. Generally, behaviorism takes the position that a child learns from reinforcement and punishment. In contrast, the cognitive model is based on theories of human thinking. The child is seen as an active participant who interprets information that is received, relates it to previously acquired facts, organizes it, and stores it for later use.
The Olweus Bullying Prevention Program is designed to improve peer relations and make schools safer, more positive places for students to learn and develop. Goals of the program include: reducing existing bullying problems among students. preventing the development of new bullying problems.
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ADHD
Most often, the doctor will start your child on a low dose of a stimulant, such as an amphetamine (Adderall, Adderall XR, Dexedrine) or methylphenidate (Concerta, Metadate, or Ritalin).
In large schools, typically 3% to 7% of the population is diagnosed with ADHD. The disorder impacts boys more than girls, with a 3:1 ratio commonly cited. Hallmark traits of ADHD include impulsivity, inability to sustain attention, constant movement, and lack of self-regulation. ADHD may be “combined type” or “predominately hyperactivity type.” ADHD may have genetic roots. Dopamine and neuroepinephrine deficiencies that cause prefrontal lobe brain dysfunction are implicated in this disorder. ADHD is largely responsive to medication treatments. Prenatal nicotine or other drug usage by the mother may be risk factors.
neurochemical issue within the frontal lobes
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Common medications for ADHD:
Adderall (amphetamine)
Ritalin (methylphenidate)
Concerta (methylphenidate)
Focalin (dexmethylphenidate)
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Autism
Prevalence rates for autism spectrum disorders used to range about 1 in every 2,500 people, but now are stated to be 1 in 88.
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ID
. On cognitive tests, ID students typically have standard scores (SSs) below 70. Students with SSs ranging from 55 to 69 are considered mildly impaired, SSs from 40 to 54 are moderately impaired, and SSs below 40 are in the severe range. In addition to low cognitive test scores, a student must perform significantly low on adaptive and functional life skill measures such as the Vineland or Adaptive Behavior Assessment System (ABAS), Third Edition to receive this diagnosis.
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Significant identifiable emotional disability (SIED or SED):
As with LDs, schools use SIED or SED as an umbrella term that captures anxiety disorders, depression, and other mental health problems. The key to this disability is that children must be impacted in various settings, and one of these settings must be school. Emotional disturbances cannot be because of temporary situational factors, and interventions must have been attempted before qualification for special education services.
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Other Important Terms Related to School Difficulties
English as a second language (ESL): Foreign students are typically placed in ESL classes in schools because they do not fully understand the English language. It seems the NASP desires ESL students be provided education in both languages. Full immersion or instruction only within a child’s native language is generally not supported.
* Readiness: This term is used to denote a student’s biological and physiological maturational level to enter school (usually kindergarten).
* Learned helplessness: This term was coined by Martin Seligman. Learned helplessness describes a behavior that results from the belief that one cannot control the events in one’s environment. People with a learned helplessness belief are prone to depression, fatalistic perspectives, low self-esteem, and low achievement. People who believe events happen to them with little control have an external, not an internal control orientation. Students with an internal locus of control are typically more successful in school.
* Theory of the mind: Theory of the mind refers to when a person begins to understand that other people have their own private thoughts, perspectives, and feelings. This theory is associated with autism.
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Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA)
The main purpose of ESSA is to make sure public schools provide a quality education for all kids. ESSA gives states more of a say in how schools account for student achievement. This includes the achievement of disadvantaged students. These students fall into four key groups:
Students in poverty
Minorities
Students who receive special education
Those with limited English language skills
Under ESSA, states get to decide the education plans for their schools within a framework provided by the federal government. The law also offers parents a chance to weigh in on these plans. This is important if your child gets special education services. You have the opportunity to make sure your child’s needs are taken into account.
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Key Broad Points of Schoolwide Policy and Practices
High Standards, Expectations, and Rigorous Curricula Provided to All Students
This is a broad NASP position that is important to know because it influences a host of test items. It is founded on the general principle that all students can learn and need to be appropriately challenged.
Coordinated Services Across a School District and Within Schools
Services should center on a MTSS model. MTSS is critical to coordination of services across systems and within schools. MTSS is for all students (not just special education students).
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Needs Assessment
A comprehensive needs assessment can serve numerous purposes, including identifying strengths and weaknesses of your school or district and helping prioritize areas of concern. Needs assessments can be specifically targeted around an area of interest for your school (e.g., perceived safety among students, discipline data, reading fluency among specified grades) or be more broad and exploratory. You must work collaboratively with school leadership in this process, while demonstrating how you can help meet the identified needs, goals, and priorities using your expansive skillset
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School Climate
School climate is a critical prevention measure and it is created from a host of specific elements. Effective school climates are based on some of the points previously mentioned, but they are specifically defined here:
* A student’s school has high expectations for learning and students believe they can learn.
* The school provides an emotionally safe and positive learning environment.
* Parents, students, and staff are involved in collaborative decision making. Parents, students, and staff are actively involved in the decisions affecting the school.
* Students come to school feeling respected and welcomed.
* Students have a trusting relationship with at least one adult in the school.
* Students explicitly know the school’s academic and behavioral expectations.
• Students feel they are a valued part of their school and have a role.
**Family involvement influences the degree of how children are engaged in school.
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Negative Policies
Tracking & Zero Tolerance
Zero-tolerance policies are generally ineffective and are not endorsed. Problems associated with zero-tolerance policies include:
Racial disproportionality
An increasing incidence of suspensions and expulsions
An increase of repeat suspensions
Elevated dropout rates
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Bullying and Harassment
Bullying is a critical area to study for the examination. Bullying and intimidation are major reasons for student difficulties and school avoidance (low attendance). Bullying has been conceptualized as a type of aggression characterized by a consistent abuse of power. Bullying can take various forms such as physical aggression, verbal aggression, relationship aggression (e.g., exclusion, social isolation and rumor spreading), and technology aggression (e.g., text messaging and slanderous e-mailing).
Key Points About Bullying
* 20% of high school students in the United States have experienced bullying
* 28% of students in the United States grades 6 to 12 experienced bullying.
* 30% of students say they have bullied other students
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Treat Assessment
Threat assessment is a violence prevention strategy that involves: (a) identifying student threats to commit a violent act, (b) determining the seriousness of the threat, and (c) developing intervention plans that protect potential victims and address the underlying problem or conflict that stimulated the threatening behavior.
Effective procedures to assess threats include establishing district-wide policies and procedures, creating interdisciplinary assessment teams, and educating the school community.
A threat is an expression of intent to do harm or act out violently against someone or something. It may be spoken, written, or symbolic. Threats can be expressed directly or indirectly to the victim or to others, and threats may be explicit or implied. Threats sometimes, but rarely, actually involve guns or explosive devices
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A threat to harm others can be transient (i.e., expression of anger or frustration that can be quickly or easily resolved) or substantive (i.e., serious intent to harm others that involves a detailed plan and means):
Examples:
Examples of Transient Threats:
Non-genuine expression
Non-enduring intent to harm
Temporary feelings of anger
Tactic in argument
Intended as joke or figure of speech
Resolved on scene or in office (time-limited)
Ends with apology, retraction, or clarification
Examples of Substantive Threats:
Specific and plausible details such as a specific victim, time, place, and method
Repeated over time or conveyed to differing individuals
Involves planning, substantial thought, or preparatory steps
Recruitment or involvement of accomplices
Invitation for an audience to observe threat being carried out
Physical evidence of intent to carry out threat (e.g., lists, drawings, written plan)
Substantive threats can be serious assault (e.g., beat up or hurt) or very serious (e.g., kill, rape, inflict severe injury, or involves the use of weapons).
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Barriers to effective threat assessment include:
Overworked staff and time constraints to conduct proper assessments
Lack of fidelity/implementation with the risk management plan
Lack of thoroughness/comprehensiveness with the assessment
Using trait profiling versus examining behaviors
Lack of a defined policy, process, and assessment to address threats
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Best practice during high-risk situations:
Get help and collaborate with colleagues
Call parents or guardians and notify administration
Supervise the student at all times. It is best to always inform the student what you are going to do every step of the way. Solicit the student’s assistance where appropriate. Under no circumstances should the student be allowed to leave school or be alone (even in the restroom).
No-harm or suicide contracts have little effectiveness and are not typically recommended.
Instruct parents to make their homes suicide proof. Whether a child is in imminent danger or not, it is recommended that both the home and school be suicide proofed. Before the child returns home and thereafter, all guns, poisons, medications, and sharp objects must be removed or made inaccessible.
Call police and get consultation. All school crisis teams should have a representative from local law enforcement.
Document the event and provide copies to all parties. Every school district should develop a documentation form for support personnel and crisis team members to record their actions in responding to a referral of a suicidal student.
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A Suicide Assessment and Intervention Model Assessment
Determine whether the student has thoughts about suicide. (Thoughts or threats, whether direct or indirect, may indicate risk.)
Has the student attempted to hurt himself or herself before? (Previous attempts may indicate risk.)
Does the student have a plan to harm himself or herself now (specific details, time, method, and place)?
What method is the student planning to use and does he have access to the means? (These answers will indicate the presence of high risk.)
What is the support system that surrounds this child? It is critical to determine the adequacy of the student’s support system.
Notify parents. Parents must be notified.
Provide referrals. School districts have an obligation to suggest agencies that are nonproprietary or offer a sliding scale of fees.
Follow-up with the student and support the family.
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Warning parents
The parents of the student must be noti ed, regard- less of the information obtained in the interview. Information provided by
the student’s parents may be needed during to the assessment process. The only exception to contacting parents is when it appears that the student might be a victim of parental abuse, in which case an immediate referral should be made to protective services. School staff members should try to meet with the parents and the student together before releasing the student to parental care. The conference should focus on how everyone can work together to obtain the treatment and supervision needed. If the student has mentioned a specific suicide method, steps need to be taken to remove access to it.
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Suggestions and Considerations About Grieving Children
Be mindful that children will be aware of the reactions of adults as they interpret and react to information about death.
Encourage children to talk about death or loss. Do not instruct children to deny thinking or talking about the situation.
Share important facts about the event and try to get a sense of what the children think about it and about death in general.
Note that grieving is a process, not a sole event. Children need adequate time to grieve in the manner that works for them. Although routines may help in the healing process, do not encourage children to resume “normal” activities without the chance to deal with their emotions.
People confronted with grief or crisis sometimes have a strong desire to “do something.” Encourage children or others in the process to engage in positive activities such as bibliotherapy, writing, or making an item to mark the event.
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General Crisis Considerations
Adult supervision and visibility are the most essential factors of school safety.
* Conduct a formal review of all school safety policies and procedures to ensure that emerging school safety issues are adequately covered in the current school crisis plans and emergency response procedures.
* Plan a communication system that includes both school and community responders. This should also address how and where parents will be informed in the event of an emergency.
* Provide crisis training and professional development for staff based on a needs assessment.
* Be familiar with violence prevention programs and curricula. Teach students alternatives to violence, including peaceful conflict resolution and positive interpersonal relationship skills. Cite specific examples such as Second Step Violence Prevention, bully proofing, Restorative Practices, or other positive interventions and behavioral supports.
* Join or create a crisis or safety team and identify school needs (i.e., a needs assessment).
* Target bullying and build a peer conflict-resolution process (restorative practices).
* Make apparent the presence of school resource officers, local police partnerships, or security guards.
* Monitor nonstaff and school guests in your building.
* Advocate for students to take responsibility for their part in maintaining safe school environments, including student participation in safety planning. Promote compliance with school rules, reporting potential problems to school officials, and resisting peer pressure to act irresponsibly.
* Anonymous reporting systems, such as student hot lines, “suggestion” boxes, and “tell an adult” campaigns should be part of your school’s culture.
* Threat-assessment and risk-assessment procedures and teams should be clearly established.
* The presence of security systems, such as video monitoring and exit door alarm systems, is sometimes useful but cannot replace adult supervision.
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Types of traumas experienced by students:
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Physical abuse
Families with substance abuse (e.g., alcohol, drugs)
Emotional neglect
Parental separation or divorce
Sexual abuse
Family member with mental illness
Witness of domestic violence
Natural disasters
School violence/aggression
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Specific reactions of youth to crisis or extreme stress
Very young children (0 to 5 years): Thumb sucking, bedwetting, separation anxiety, clinging to parents, sleep disturbances, loss of appetite, fear of the dark, regression in behavior, and withdrawal from friends and routines.
Elementary school children: Fear and safety issues, aggressiveness, irritability, clinginess, nightmares, avoidance of routine activities, school problems, poor concentration, and withdrawal.
Adolescents: Sleeping and eating disturbances, extreme emotions such as agitation, increase in interpersonal conflicts, somatic complaints, delinquent behavior, and poor attention or focus.
Know key characteristics of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). PTSD is a normal human response to extreme stress or disaster. People with PTSD have high anxiety and their reactions to stress are extreme. Obsessive thoughts about the crisis event, sleep problems, hyperarousal (vigilance), and externalizing behaviors such as avoidance are common symptoms of PTSD. PTSD is both a psychological and physiological reaction to trauma. Individuals with PTSD may have a dysfunction neurological system (e.g., limic system).
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BASIC Ph Model: Six Individual Coping Styles Related to Trauma
Belief—student uses core values and religion to cope with a crisis
2. Affect—student shares emotions and discusses emotional responses with adults
3. Social—student uses social network, relationships, and family to help cope
4. Imagination—student expresses difficulties through creative means
5. Cognitive—student employs rational thought and prefers the direct approach to process
6. Physiological—student uses physical activities to cope with the event
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Broad elements for effective home–school collaboration
Mutual trust between staff and parents
Proactive and responsive practices and services, not reactive
Sensitivity and respect for culture
Genuine recognition of teacher and parent contributions
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Specific elements of an effective home–school collaboration:
Effective bidirectional communication
Decision making and problem solving are collaborative processes
Collaboration and communication should be consistent
Services should be coordinated
Services should have continuity (long term)
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Barriers to effective collaboration
Lack of trust for large systems
Different cultural values about education
Perceived lack of acceptance of cultural values
School’s attitudes about culture and parents (negativity)
Lack of qualified staff and interpreters
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Six primary types of parental involvement (Epstein’s Model)
1. Parenting
2. Communicating
3. Volunteering
4. Learning at home
5. Decision making
6. Collaborating with community
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Four Organizational Principles Critical for Effective Home-School Collaboration
* An ecological perspective is the foundation for effective collaboration
* An understanding of parents’ views on education and their children’s school
* Commitment to the process
* The need to have an ongoing strategic planning process that guides all home–school collaborative efforts and adapts to change
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Look at MTSS pic on pg. 75
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Needs Assessment
A comprehensive needs assessment can serve numerous purposes, including identifying strengths and weaknesses of your school or district and helping prioritize areas of concern. Needs assessments can be specifically targeted around an area of interest for your school (e.g., perceived safety among students, discipline data, reading fluency among specified grades) or be more broad and exploratory. You must work collaboratively with school leadership in this process, while demonstrating how you can help meet the identified needs, goals, and priorities using your expansive skillset.
Step 1: Identifying and Engaging the Appropriate Stakeholders
Step 2: Identifying Relevant Data Sources (Ideally From Multiple Perspectives and Stakeholders, Including Students, Educators, and Families)
Many resources with school indicators of progress include data that already exist and just need to be analyzed with an eye toward how you can contribute to school improvement. Examples include:
Demographics: Enrollment, attendance, retention, ethnicity, gender, free and reduced meals, cultural and linguistic diversity, graduation rates, dropout rates, special education data, student mobility, at-risk populations
School climate: discipline referrals, perceived safety and connectedness among students and staff, classroom management
Student learning and achievement: grades, universal screening measures, formative assessments, disaggregated data by various groups (age, ethnicity, access to interventions), data trends over time, state testing data, teacher observations
Family and community engagement: opportunities for involvement, attendance and actual involvement from families and community in school functions and decisions, availability of language interpretive services, existing community partnerships
Staff quality, recruitment, and retention: staff attendance and turnover rate, professional development, mentoring opportunities for new staff
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It is imperative to emphasize that effective pedagogy is founded on the belief that all students can learn regardless of the cultural barriers or special needs.
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disproportionality and bias
The NASP states that “disproportionality refers to a group’s representation in a particular category that exceeds expectations for that group, or differs substantially from the representation of others in that category”.In other words, being part of a particular group raises the probability of being placed into another group, such as special education. It has been observed by some experts that minority groups are disproportionally placed into special programs and are likely to be identified with specific disorders or dysfunctions. The impact of disproportionality can be significant (e.g., lower self-esteem, expectations, lower wages, lower employment, higher arrest rates). Although there is no one single factor determined to cause disproportionality, a school psychologist should be aware of biases that negatively impact children.
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Face and content validity
his involves how rational and reasonable the test and test items look. During test construction, experts in the area being examined are asked to evaluate whether test items look logical. For example, a math test would be considered invalid if all test items asked about cats.
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Power
When evaluating research results, researchers examine their research hypothesis in terms of the probability of making true statements, or statements that are probably not true. Hence, power is the probability of making the correct decision if the alternative hypothesis is true. That is, the power of a hypothesis test is the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis H0 when the alternative hypothesis HA is the hypothesis that is true. A typical factor that reduces the power of a test or a program relates to the number of subjects used in the research. The lower the number of subjects used in statistical research, the lower the research study’s power. To increase research power, one needs to raise the number of subjects used to make key inferences. When evaluating research studies, look for a subject pool greater than 50. When evaluating programs or tests, look for subjects in the hundreds (or thousands), which is more desirable and considered more powerful.
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Types of ANOVA
One-way ANOVA
A one-way ANOVA is used when assessing for differences in one continuous variable between ONE grouping variable. For example, a one-way ANOVA would be appropriate if the goal of research is to assess for differences in job satisfaction levels between ethnicities. In this example, there is only one dependent variable (job satisfaction) and ONE independent variable (ethnicity).
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Multi-way ANOVA
A multi-way ANOVA is used in complex research designs. A multi-way ANOVA might be a two-way ANOVA or a three-way ANOVA. This type of ANOVA is used to evaluate the effect of two or more independent variables, each of which has two or more levels, on a dependent variable measured at a single time point.
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Mixed factorial ANOVA
Mixed factorial ANOVA is used to examine the effect of one or more independent variables. Each independent variable may have two or more levels on a dependent variable that is measured at two or more points in time.
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Analysis of covariance:(ANCOVA)
Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) is a very strong type of ANOVA and can use other types of ANOVA methods. The key benefit of ANCOVA is that it removes bias in the dependent variable(s). This ANOVA model increases the accuracy of conclusions regarding the independent variable because it accounts for covariates related to within-group variance or group error. When you account for within-group error, it enhances the ability to identify meaningful differences between groups on the dependent variable(s).
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MLM designs:
MLM is a statistical model of parameters that vary at more than one level. If there are multiple levels or variables to consider, then MLM is a useful alternative to ANOVA. When evaluating programs or research, it is important that research designs are well suited for the methodology employed.
MLM designs:
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Hierarchical designs
Randomized block designs
Growth curve modeling
Piecewise
Cross-classified designs (repeated measures)
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Correlational Studies
Correlational studies examine the strength of relationship between two or more variables. Correlational studies are very common research designs and result in a correlational coefficient that denotes the potency of the relationship among items. One of the most studied correlational studies related to psychology is the relationship between IQ scores on a given test to achievement scores on another test. Remember, correlational coefficients above 0.5 are considered moderate, while a 0.8 correlation is viewed as strong and at a desirable level for use.
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Experimental Designs
Experimental designs typically involve groups of people. One group is a control group, while the other group is given an intervention. The results of the experimental group that receives an intervention is contrasted to those of the control group. Results are statistically analyzed to determine if the outcomes are significant. The gold standard in experimental designs is called the double-blind experiment. In double-blind experiments, both the group members and the researchers do not know which group receives the actual intervention.
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Meta-Analysis (Meta-Analytical Studies)
Meta-analysis is a highly regarded and strong type of research method. The reason meta-analytic studies are powerful is because they are designed to examine the results of several research studies, not just one study. The ability to statistically analyze the result of several independent studies across time (sometimes decades) is extremely helpful to control the biases, confounding factors, or design flaws in any one study. Although these meta-analytic designs are robust, the same cautions apply when evaluating their results. It is cautioned to look at the bias of the researcher(s), overgeneralization of results, questionable conclusions, and statistical techniques that are not well-suited for the study.
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Refer to pg. 86 for NASP ethical principles!
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Private Practice Standards
Guidelines under this area involve financial issues. For example, do not charge people for the same services provided by the school district that employs you unless the client fully understands that the school’s services are available for free. Do not accept money for referrals. Do not engage in private-practice work during school hours. Provide honest and complete information about yourself and your services when advertising your practice.
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Child Benefit Is Always the Focus
Psychologists should consult with teachers and staff, but do not counsel adults. The focus of a school psychologist’s efforts is on the child and within the scope of training (0–21 years old). Provide information and resources to adults in need, but provide interventions to children.
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Technology Issues
Psychologists are embedded in a culture of technology and must be keenly aware of the many ways it can enhance psychological practices, but also ways technology can harm students, especially from the standpoint of confidentiality. Technology issues to be considered:
* Confidential report writing and secure storage of electronic reports
* Confidential and secure data storage of student information
* E-mail transmissions that protect the identity of students
* Secured electronic communication about students
* Secure storage of protocols and test information (both electronic and traditional hard copies)
* Respect copyright laws regarding the electronic scanning and copying of data, especially test protocols and assessment information
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Complaints about an NASP member
1. Complaints must be made by an identified person (not anonymous).
2. It is important to try to resolve concerns with the individual before filing a complaint. People who file a complaint do not have to be NASP members.
3. An ethics committee will decide whether to hear the case.
4. An ethics committee will examine the evidence and determine if the complaint has merit and whether the complaint is in violation of NASP ethics.
5. Notification in writing will be granted to an individual who has been filed against.
6. An ethics committee will attempt to resolve conflicts through discussion and participation of all parties in the dispute.
7. Possible actions by an ethics committee:
* Dismiss complaint
* Seek more information
* Corrective measures
* Member placed on probation
* Require member to give compensation or provide an apology
* Require additional training and skill development
* Expulsion from NASP
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Aversive, punishment and general discipline procedures
Aversive Procedures
These are discouraged and should be considered a last resort for students (e.g., self-injurious behaviors may need temporary restraining). Informed parental consent is necessary for aversive procedures.
Corporal Punishment
The NASP strongly opposes the use of corporal punishment in schools. Psychologists should educate others about the harm that corporal punishment causes children.
General Discipline
Courts have ruled that schools should apply discipline in a fair, nondiscriminatory manner. School rules should be clearly stated and the consequences for breaking rules understood by all students.
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Change of Placement Because of Disciplinary Removals
A change of placement occurs if:
* The removal is for more than 10 consecutive days.
* The behavior is substantially similar in all instances that lead to the removal.
* There have been additional factors such as the length of each removal, the total number of times the student has been removed, or the proximity of the removals to each other.
* A school psychologist must also provide a functional behavioral assessment (FBA) to determine the cause of the behavior.
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Manifestation Determination
A manifestation meeting is conducted by the individualized education program (IEP) team to determine whether or not the student’s behavior that led to a suspension or an expulsion was a result of a disability. This meeting must be held within 10 days of the change of placement decision. If the behavior was a manifestation of the student’s disability, the team must provide an FBA and implement a behavior plan for the student. The child may return to the original school placement or be placed in another school if it is part of the new plan and agreed on by the team.
Note: If the behavior was not determined to be a manifestation of the child’s disability, disciplinary procedures may be applied to the child in the same manner as children without disabilities, except that the child still receives the same additional protections under IDEA. Additional protections to be considered in these situations are free and appropriate public education (FAPE) and least restrictive environment.
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Special Suspension and Expulsion Considerations
Schools may place a child with a disability in an interim placement for 45 days, regardless of manifestation determination, if the student carried a weapon to school; inflicted serious bodily harm on another individual; or knowingly sold, used, or possessed drugs.
* Parents or schools can appeal the manifestation determination to a hearing officer.
* A child who has a disability, but has not yet received an IEP, can have the same protections under IDEA if the school or parents suspect that the student has a disability.
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Education for All Handicapped Children Act (EAHCA), 1975
The first special education law in the United States
Often referred to as Public Law 94-142
After various amendments, the name was changed to IDEA (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act)
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Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA), 2004
Applies to students with the following disabilities: autism; deaf–blindness; deafness; hearing impairment; mental retardation; multiple disabilities; orthopedic impairments or other health impairments; emotional disturbance; specific learning disability; speech or language impairment; traumatic brain injury (TBI); visual impairment, including blindness.
Mandates FAPE for all children with disabilities.
Mandates that students receiving special education services are placed in an LRE.
States must not require the use of the discrepancy model and must permit the use of a response to intervention (RTI) model. IDEA may permit the use of other research-based procedures for identifying learning disabilities (LD). (This point is a key concept of IDEA and may be asked on the Praxis exam.) Note that the NASP endorses the use of RTI, but schools can actually still use other models, such as the discrepancy model, to determine eligibility for services.
Elaborates and further defines parental safeguards and rights presented in IDEA.
Provides funds for children from birth to age 3 years
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No Child Left Behind (NCLB), 2001
Purpose is to close the achievement gap
Targets high-risk schools
Mandates statewide formal assessments for grades 3 to 8. Each state must strive for academic proficiency for students or face possible consequences by governing agencies.
Made public school choice available for students at schools that are low performing for 2 years.
Act requires highly qualified teachers for public schools.
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Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA), 1974
Schools must adhere to strict confidential student record-keeping procedures.
FERPA record-keeping laws are designed to protect confidentiality and allow parents access to educational records.
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The Rehabilitation Act: Section 504, 1973
This is not a special education law; rather it is part of a civil rights law.
Provides a broader definition of “handicap” than “disability” under IDEA (Sped Law).
Section 504 prohibits discrimination against otherwise qualifying individuals on the basis of a handicapping condition in any program receiving federal funds.
Complaints are serviced by the Office for Civil Rights (OCR)
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Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)
A civil rights law to prohibit discrimination solely on the basis of disability in employment, public services, and accommodations
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Zero Reject Principle
Established Child Find, which requires states to locate and identify children with disabilities and provide them with full educational opportunity, regardless of the severity of the disability.
No child with a disability can be denied a free appropriate public education.
Child Find Law for children 0 to 3 years old was based on Public Law 94-457, Education of the Handicapped Act. Public Law 94-457 authorized early intervention for toddlers and families.
The Perkins Act gives rights to transition special education students into vocational programs. Provides occupational access.
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Brown v. Board of Education
states that educational facilities are not allowed to segregate according to race.
Hobson v. Hansen ruled that schools must provide equal educational opportunities despite a family’s socioeconomic status (SES). Review laws dealing with ability tracking.
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Diana v. State Board of Education
states that assessments must be administered in the native language of the student in order to validate minority testing practices. This is similar to another case, Guadalupe v. Temple School District. In this case, it was ruled that students cannot be identified as mentally retarded unless they were properly assessed by considering the student’s primary language and had scores at least two standard deviations below the mean.
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Larry P. v. Riles
was a landmark case in California that ruled that the percentage of minority students placed in special education classrooms could not exceed the percentage in the representative population. This ruling was based on the fact that there was an overrepresentation of minorities classified as mentally retarded.
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PASE v. Hannon
is a pro-special education ruling that endorsed the use of standardized tests as long as the tests are not culturally biased and are used with several other measures.
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PARC v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania (1972
This is a landmark case that marks the genesis of FAPE. The court ruled in this case that intellectually disabled children should have access to public education and that due process rights shall be honored and preserved.
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Marshall v. Georgia
is also a pro-special education ruling that stood in contrast to the Larry P. case. The Marshall ruling stated that the percentage of minorities placed in special education can exceed the percentage in the representative population as long as the appropriate and proper steps for placement were followed.
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Honig v. Doe
states that special education students must have a manifestation hearing to review placement if they are suspended for more than 10 days.
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Oberti v. Cementon (1993)
is a legal case that affirmed the rights of a special needs student to be included (inclusion) in regular education classes and activities. The courts also underscored that schools must adhere to the IDEA requirements especially those related to an LRE.
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Rowley v. Hudson Board of Education (1982)
s an important landmark case wherein the judge stated that public schools do not have to provide the best education, but rather an adequate education. In other words, schools do not have to provide a Cadillac; a Ford is acceptable. (Note: Never repeat the previous statement to a parent.) This case defined and provided parameters for FAPE.
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Lau v. Nichols (1974)
ruled that schools must provide accommodations for English as a second language (ESL) students.
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Tatro v. Irving Independent School District
was a Supreme Court case that ruled that schools must provide medical services that do not require a medical doctor to perform such medical services, even if the child needs full-time attention from a nurse.
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Complaints
must be filed with 2 years problem or dispute
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Resolution meetings
within 15 days of receiving the complaint school must have a meeting.
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The founding father of Psychology
William Wundlt
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Father of school psychology
Lightner Witmer
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The first school psychologist
Arnold Gesell
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Major contributor to the filed of behavior
BF Skinner
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added Balance to bf Skinner work
Bandura
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Frontal lobe
This lobe is largely responsible for executive functions. This area does not necessarily process information as much as it controls other aspects of the brain (e.g., it is the brain manager or executive). This lobe helps in planning future actions and regulating behavior. It is also responsible for cognitive flexibility and helps people shift to different aspects of problem solving or topics.
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Parietal lobe
Located roughly on the top portion of the brain, this area helps to assimilate body sensations (i.e., somatosensory). Sensory disorders are typically associated with the parietal lobe. As a secondary role, this lobe also helps with developing symbolic associations and math skills and with integrating information.
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Temporal lobe
Located on the right and left sides of the brain, this lobe primarily processes auditory information and language. The temporal lobe is implicated in reading problems and phonological processing difficulties. Memory storage is associated with this lobe.
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Occipital lobe
Located at the back of the head, this area is responsible for processing visual information.
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Aphasia & agnosia
Aphasia is the inability to use language, and agnosia is the inability to identify seen objects.
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Neurochemicals (brain chemicals):
Dopamine: This neurochemical is involved in producing positive moods and emotions. Dopamine is associated with reward, pleasure, and novelty seeking. It is implicated in Parkinson’s disease and ADHD.
* Endorphins: Endorphins are a natural opiate similar to morphine that are released to moderate pain.
* Serotonin is associated with relaxation, sleep, and mood. An imbalance in serotonin is implicated in clinical depression.
* Glutamate is a significant excitatory neurotransmitter that is released by nerve cells in the brain. It is responsible for sending signals between nerve cells. Under normal conditions, it plays an important role in learning and memory. Glutamate is one of the most prevalent neurochemicals in the brain and is related to a substantial number of disorders and neurodegenerative diseases.
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Brain (Right & Left Hem)
right hemisphere of the brain is associated with creativity, holistic thinking, novel information processing, and visual–spatial processes. In contrast to the right, the left hemisphere of the brain is concerned with language, verbal information, sequences, and factual (learned or familiar) information
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review TBI Concepts on pg. 104
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Maslow's Hierarchy of needs
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Physiological
safety
love/belonging
esteem
self-actualization
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Sigmund frued
| Id, ego and superego
1. Id: Operates on the “pleasure principle.” Maximizes pleasure and satisfies needs immediately.
2. Ego: Is the rational, controlling part of personality that emerges and attempts to gratify needs through appropriate, socially constructive behavior.
3. Superego: Emerges when the child internalizes (accepts and absorbs) parental or societal morals, values, and roles and develops a conscience.
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Review the stages of the fathers 107
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Internal & External Locus of Control
A person with an internal locus of control believes that he or she can influence events and their outcomes, while someone with an external locus of control blames outside forces for everything.
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NASP: PREPaRE
The PREPaRE curriculum has been developed by the National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) as part of NASP's decade-long leadership in providing evidence-based resources and consultation related to school crisis prevention and response. PREPaRE training is ideal for schools committed to improving and strengthening their school safety and crisis management plans and emergency response.
The curriculum is based on the assumptions that:
the skill sets of school-based professionals are best utilized when they are embedded within a multidisciplinary team that engages in crisis prevention, preparedness, response, and recovery;
school crisis management is relatively unique and as such requires its own conceptual model; and
by virtue of their professional training and job functions, school-based mental health professionals are best prepared to address the psychological issues associated with school crises.
Specifically, the PREPaRE model emphasizes that, as members of a school safety and crisis team, school mental health professionals must be involved in the following specific hierarchical and sequential set of activities:
P—Prevent and PREPaRE for psychological trauma
R—Reaffirm physical health and perceptions of security and safety
E—Evaluate psychological trauma risk
P—Provide interventions
a—and
R—Respond to psychological needs
E—Examine the effectiveness of crisis prevention and intervention
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REBT
According to REBT, it is largely our thinking about events that leads to emotional and behavioral upset. With an emphasis on the present, individuals are taught how to examine and challenge their unhelpful thinking which creates unhealthy emotions and self-defeating/self-sabotaging behaviors.
REBT is a practical approach to assist individuals in coping with and overcoming adversity as well as achieving goals. REBT places a good deal of its focus on the present. REBT addresses attitudes, unhealthy emotions (e.g., unhealthy anger, depression, anxiety, guilt, etc.) and maladaptive behaviors (e.g., procrastination, addictive behaviors, aggression, unhealthy eating, sleep disturbance, etc.) that can negatively impact life satisfaction. REBT practitioners work closely with individuals, seeking to help identify their individual set of beliefs (attitudes, expectations and personal rules) that frequently lead to emotional distress.
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The halo affect
The halo effect is a well documented social-psychology phenomenon that causes people to be biased in their judgments by transferring their feelings about one attribute of something to other, unrelated, attributes
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social cognitive theory
Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) started as the Social Learning Theory (SLT) in the 1960s by Albert Bandura. It developed into the SCT in 1986 and posits that learning occurs in a social context with a dynamic and reciprocal interaction of the person, environment, and behavior. The unique feature of SCT is the emphasis on social influence and its emphasis on external and internal social reinforcement.
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Scaffolding
In education, scaffolding refers to a variety of instructional techniques used to move students progressively toward stronger understanding and, ultimately, greater independence in the learning process.
