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predicted 2025 Flashcards

(36 cards)

1
Q

all ao1 reliability - schizophrenia

A

reliability - the consistency of a measuring tool or other tests used in diagnosis

test-retest reliability - doctors must be able to reach the same conclusions about a patients diagnosis

inter-rater reliability - the extent to which different assessors agree on their assessments

the DSM and other tools must enable inter-rater reliability

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2
Q

reliability cultural differences paragraph

A

lurhman et al found that experiences of hearing voices differs from cross cultures

for example individuals in the united states often descirbe hearing voices ad distressing and symptoms of mental illness

where as in ghana and india people more commonly interpret them as positive or spiritual experiences

this highlights how cultural context shapes the perception of symptoms like auditory hallucinations

these cultural variations highlight how clinicians might misinterpret culturally normative experiences as symptoms of schizophrenia undermining the reliability of diagnosis across cultural groups

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3
Q

issue and debate a03 reliability and validity - rosenhan

A

rosenhan sent 8 pseudopatients to various psychiatric hospitals where they feigned hearing voices saying empty hollow or thud

after admission they acted normally and recorded their experiences

reliability - lack of it because different hospitals gave inconsistent diagnosis (schizo or bipolar) to pseudopatients exhibiting the same fabricated symptoms

validity problem - suggests a diagnosis of schizo may lack validity because psychiatrists misdiagnosed healthy individuals as having schizo demonstrating that the diagnosis did not accurately reflect the presence of a genuine disorder

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4
Q

validity ao1 - schizo

A

validity - extent to which the classification of schizo is a true reflection of the illness the patient is suffering from thus focusing on how accurate and meaningful it is

gender bias may prevent schizo from being valid because diagnosis criteria and interpretations often reflect stereotypical male experiences leading to underdiagnoses or misdiagnosis in females whose symptoms may present differently.
secondly clinicians may base their judgment on stereotypical beliefs held about gender which may affect how they apply the criteria

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5
Q

ao3 gender validity schizo

A

loring powell asked 290 male and female psychiatrists to read two case vignettes of patients behaviour and to make decisions about diagnosis based on standard diagnostic criteria.

they found that 56% psychiatrists gave a diagnosis of schizo when described as female. this suggests that the gender of the patient changes the diagnosis given which reduces the validity of diagnosis given

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6
Q

ao1 diathesis stress model

A

example of interactionist approach
sees schizo as being a result of combination of environmental and biological influences

diathesis - research into twins has shown us that schizo has a genetic compound that the Mz twins have higher concordance rate than Dz twins. however about 50% identical twins has schizo and the other does not so there must be enviro factors

stress - stressors can come in many forms eg childhood trauma or stresses of urbanised living - the environment is shown to be not the cause but combined with genetic risk may become a trigger

lucrose et al found children who experienced severe trauma before the age of 16 where 3x more likely to develop schizophrenia than the general population

interactionist treatment - involves antipsychotic medication and psych therapy eg antipsychotics and CBT to help patients challenge delusions and improve functioning

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7
Q

ao3 diathesis stress model - tienari et al

A

studied 303 finnish adoptees. some had biological mothers with schizo while others did not. the adoptee families where assessed for family dysfunctions

results shows that genetic risk alone did not predict schizo but adoptees with both genetic predisposition and a dysfunctional family environment where significantly more likely to develop the disorder

this supports the diathesis stress model suggesting that schizophrenia is caused by genetic vulnerability and environmental stress as a healthy environment reduced the risk of those with genetic susceptibility

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8
Q

strength of diathesis stress model - ao3

A

it acknowledges the complexity for schizo which is unlikely to be cause by a single factor. this holistic view is more comprehensive then purely biological or psychological explanations

however despite its integrative nature the model can be criticized for potentially oversimplifying the complex interplay of factors involved in schizo. there are many elements that cannot be fully comprehended by the model. therefore the application of the interactionist approach should be viewed with caution

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9
Q

nature vs nature - ao3 diathesis stress model

A

polmin et al have suggested the idea of passive influence in which genetic influence on potential behaviour create a particular environment in which their children are raised eg parents with a genetically influenced mental illness may create an unsettling home environment

this suggests disorders like schizophrenia may be the result of indirect influence.

furthermore those ideas also demonstrate the possible interaction between nature and nurture and demonstrate that nature can actually effect nurture

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10
Q

a01 token economy

A

this is form of behaviour therapy based on the principle of operant conditioning

quality of life - token economies enhance patients daily experiences by reinforcing positive behaviours with tangible rewards increasing motivation etc

normalising behaviour - encourages socially acceptable actions through reward. help patients develop habits that align with the real world

primary reinforcers - rewards that directly satisfy a biological or social need eg sweets magazines etc

secondary reinforcers - are rewards with no inherent value but gain meaning through association with primary reinforcers. they gain tokens which can then be traded for a reward

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11
Q

issue with token economy - schizo

A

they are difficult to continue once a person is outside a hospital setting. this is because target behaviours cannot be monitored closely and tokens cannot be administered immediately
however on the other hand some people with schizophrenia may only get the chance to live outside a hospital if their personal care and social interaction can be improved and perhaps the best way to achieve this is using a token economy during hospital care

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12
Q

issue and debate token economy

A

in TE patients do not consent to take part and cannot withdraw themselves from the procedure.

additionally patients have personal properties and basic comfort and freedom of choice of treatment constrained during the process therefore it seems to many that TE reduces its patients to lab rate =s in a behaviourist experiment.

the procedure therefore has been criticised for its ethical issues and therefore should be viewed with caution

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13
Q

culture bias ao1

A

culture bias - tendency to ignore cultural differences and interpret all behaviours through the norms of your own culture

ethnocentrism - belief in the superiority of your own culture

emic - behavioural constructs particularly to a specific culture

etic - behavioural constructs that are universal to all people

imposed etic - when emics and etics are mistaken for one another

cultural relativism - idea that norms and values can only be meaningful and understood within specific social and cultural contexts

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14
Q

ethnocentrism - cultural relativism

A

anisworths strange situations
use of inappropratie neg lang makes the norms of other cultres seem deficient compared to secure

not appropraite for assessing non uk or us children populations ]

cultural differences in child rearing styles make results liable to misrepresentation eg Japanese’s samples - taskahasi had to stop study for 90% of children beacuse of how exetreme there anxiety became

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15
Q

cultural bias - ao3

A

co chrane found that african Caribbean immigrants where 7x more likely to be diagnosed with a mental illness

12x more likely for schizo

this leads us to question the validity of the DSM / ICD for diagnosing people who are born outside the culture they where created in

does this mean that DSM / ICD are ethnocentric and mental illness is not a universally agreed concept eg anorexia / brain fog

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16
Q

individualist / collectivist cultures

A

ind - value personal freedom and independence
coll - value interdependence and group needs
therefore these cultures are not comparable in terms of origins of behaviours. this causes a ethnocentric bias or etic to be imposed leading to compromised validity of any theory construction

however
the distinction between the two cultures may no longer apply due to increasing global and social media

the lines betweent he two are becoming blurred and tayano and osaka found no evidence between the two in there behaviour so the issue will therefore be reduced

17
Q

ao1 idiographic and nomothetic

A

the debate concerns whether psychology should aim to produce generalisations which people can be compared or measured or whether it should hold the belief that all people are unique

nomothetic - quantitative study of large groups with the aim of discovering universal principles or laws of behaviour to be generalised to the population eg Zimbardo’s study

idiogrpahic - a detailed qualitative study of one individual or small group to provide an indepth understanding od behaviour eg clive wearing

18
Q

strengths and limataions of idiogrpahic approach

A

strength - in depth qualitative method of investigation provides a complete account of an individual. it can also work well with a normal nomothetic approach demonstrating the general laws and adding understanding and detailed of experience or can challenge them

offers only a narrow and restricted view of behaviour no meaningful generalisations can / should be made without further validation. relies on the subjective interpretation of the research - which adds bias in conclusions

19
Q

strengths and weakness of nomothetic approach

A

strentgh - a more scientific apprach used so data can be analysed quantitatively and tested under standardised empricial methods sych processes have enabled psychologists to establish norms of typical behaviour giving psychology greater significance

accused of losing the whole person eg knowing the=at there is only 1% risk of developing schizo tells us very little about what life is like for someone who is suffering from it. not only this but patients subjective experiences are completely ignored

20
Q

interactionist stance - non and id

A

as there are strengths and weaknesses of both sides of the debate a more valid approach would be to take an interactionist stance eg memory models - general laws with support underpinned by cause study evidence eg clive wearing. any theories that do not take an interactionist stance can be seen as an limited explanation

21
Q

ao1 self disclosure

A

this is the information we choose to reveal about ourselves within a romantic relationship. this aim is to increase intimacy, understanding between two individuals.

social penetration theory - suggests that the process of self - disclosure allows are person to penetrate deeper into the life of their partner. therefore increasing trust and intimacy

breadth and depth - the breadth is the number of topics discussed between individuals and the depth is the level of intimacy in the conversation between individuals

high levels of breadth will result in low levels of depth

reciprocity is also important as partners have to respond in a rewarding way for disclosure to happen and deepen the intimacy of a relationship

22
Q

reaeeach support - self disclosure

A

laurenceau et al - they asked pps to write daily dairy entries about progress in their relationship and found that self - disclosure and perception of disclosure in a partner led to greater feelings of intimacy in a couple the reverse was true as well - couples who complained about lack of intimacy self disclosed often

23
Q

nomothetic vs idiographic - self disclosure

A

social peneytration theroy is unable to explain all types of relationships as it is limited in taking a nomotheitc apprach

this theroy ignores many other fators that can influence relationships sych as cultural practices and personality

futhermore by reducing relationship satisfaction to a single factor means that social penetartion theory ignores other factors of romantic attraction eg pshyscal attractuveness

this usggest that reseach could benefit by using an idiogrpahic apprach htat studies couples unique experiences in detail rather than trying to establish a set of laws that apply to all couples

24
Q

cultural differences - self disclosure

A

SPT was developed based on research in a western individualist culture so it may not apply to collectivist cultures

eg rang et al found that men abd women in the usa tended to disclose more sexual thoughts and d=feelings than romatic partners in china

however the level of relationship satisfaction was high in both cultures

this shows that slef disclosure is not a requirement for successful relationships in all cultures making social penetration theory culturally biased

25
ao1 equity theory
equity Theory suggests that partners are concerned about fairness in relationships. Fairness is achieved when people feel they get approximately what they deserve from relationships Inequity has the potential to cause distress. This happens when one person gives a great deal and gets little in return. However the same is true of those who receive a great deal and give little in return Over benefitting and Under benefitting are both examples of inequity although it’s the under benefitting partner who is going to feel the greatest dissatisfaction, in the form of anger, hostility and resentment. The over benefitting person will likely feel guilt, shame and discomfort
26
ao3 equity theory - cultural differences
There are also important cultural differences not accounted for by the Equity theory. Studies such as Aumer-Ryan et al. (2006) show that the concept of equity is more important in Western cultures than non-Western cultures. They found that both men and women from non-Western (collectivist) cultures claimed to be most satisfied with their relationships when they were over-benefitting from it, not when the relationships were fair. These results highlight a culture bias in this area of research and suggest that Equity Theory does not explain the development of romantic relationships in all cultures
27
a03 equity theory
additionally, there seem to be some important individual differences in perception of equity that may affect the usefulness of equity theory. There are people who are less sensitive to inequity and are prepared to give more in the relationships. Other people, entitleds, believe they deserve to over-benefit from relationships and don’t feel too guilty about this. These individuals do not fit the patterns outlined by equity theory and therefore may mean the theory should be used with caution to explain romantic relationships.
28
ao1 media on agression desensitisation
biological effect Normally when we witness violent actions we experience physiological arousal associated with the sympathetic nervous system But when children in particular repeatedly view aggression on TV or play violent computer games, they build up a physical tolerance to its effects, resulting in a reduction of anxiety and arousal on repeated viewing/playing so more violence or aggression is sought to feel the level of excitement desired.
29
ao3 desensitisation
Krahe (2011): showed participants violent (and non-violent) film clips, while measuring physiological arousal using skin conductance tests. Findings: pps who were habitual viewers of violent media showed lower levels of arousal when they watched the violent clips. They also reported higher levels of pleasant arousal and lower levels of anxious arousal. Lower arousal in habitual violent media users reflects desensitisation to the effects of violence, and a greater willingness to be aggressive.
30
ao1 disinhibition
social effect there are powerful social inhibitions against using aggression to resolve conflicts. This is learned through SLT. Disinhibition explains that these usual restraints are loosened after exposure to violent media. Aggressive behaviour is often made to appear normative and justified. It is not unusual for video games to reward violence and to ignore consequences of that violence to the victims. This creates new social norms in the viewer.
31
ao3 disinhibition
Berkowitz & Alioto (1973): found that participants who saw a film depicting aggression as vengeance gave more (fake) electric shocks of longer duration to a confederate. This suggests that media violence may disinhibit aggressive behaviour when it is presented as justified (therefore socially acceptable).
32
ao1 cognitive priming
Repeated viewing of aggressive media can provide us with a ‘script’ about how violent situations may play out. This script is stored in memory, and so we become ‘ready’ to act on it This process is mostly automatic and unconscious – it directs our behaviour without us being aware of it. The schema script is triggered when we encounter cues in a situation we perceive as aggressive.
33
a03 cognitive priming
Bushman’s (2002) Karate Kid study. Students viewed 15 minutes of aggression from the film Karate Kid 3. A control group viewed an equally arousing non-violent film Each participant completed a 25 minute trial reaction time task against an imaginary opponent. Students who won could ‘punish’ their opponent by subjecting them to white noise and could select the punishment level Participants who watched the aggressive film clip delivered longer and higher intensity punishments than those in the non-violent condition. This supports Cognitive Priming Theory.
34
institutional aggression ao1
importation model This model suggests that prisoners bring histories and traits with them into the prison environment - For many prisoners, these behavioural traits are the reason they have been imprisoned in the first place situational model This model recognises that the environment of the institution plays a part in the level of aggression exhibited by people/prisoners. deprivation model - Sykes (1958) believed that aggression in prisons emanated from within the institution, not from the outside.
35
ao3 institutional aggression - delisi et al
DeLisi et al (2011) studied juvenile delinquents in Californian prisons from many different negative backgrounds, including childhood trauma, anger, histories of substance abuse, and of violent behaviour. The study compared this group of inmates with a control group (without any such characteristics). The negative background group were found to be more likely to engage in suicidal activity, sexual misconduct, and acts of physical aggression whilst in prison than the control group. It seems these behaviours were imported.
36
ao3 institutional aggression - zimbardo
24 psychologically healthy males were chosen (psychometric testing of volunteers prior to the study), yet ALL participants displayed aggressive behaviour in the prison environment Aggression must have occurred because of the deprivations (and frustrations) of the prison environment itself rather than the personalities (dispositions) of the participants. This study can be used to support the Situational explanation, but also to challenge the Dispositional explanation