prelim Flashcards
1
Q
Underlying belief system that guides how researchers understand the world and approach the process of gaining knowledge.
-It’s like the “lens” through which researchers view their study.
-Each philosophy offers a different way of thinking about research and influences the methods researchers choose to use.
A
Research philosophy
2
Q
-think hard sciences – physics, biology, astronomy
-philosophy assumes that answers can be found by carefully measuring and analysing data, particularly numerical data.
- typically manifests in methodologies that make use of quantitative data, and oftentimes (but not always) adopt experimental or quasi-experimental research designs
, the focus is on causal relationships
-in other words, understanding which variables affect other variables, in what way and to what extent
A
positivism
3
Q
Aim for objectivity, generalisability and replicability of findings
A
Aim of positivist research
4
Q
- Takes the position that reality is socially constructed
- In other words, that reality is subjective, and is constructed by the observer through their experience of it, rather than being independent of the observer (which, if you recall, is what positivism assumes).
-The research aims involve attempting to understand the meanings and interpretations that people assign to their experiences.
A
interpretivism
5
Q
What typically manifests in the adoption of a qualitative methodology, relying on data collection methods such as interviews, observations, and textual analysis?
A
Interpretivistic philosophy
6
Q
- As the name suggests, this takes a more practical and flexible approach, focusing on the usefulness and applicability of research findings
- With a ____________ research paradigm, both quantitative and qualitative methods can play a part
- Manifests in studies that adopt a mixed-method approach, utilising a combination of different data types and analysis methods.
A
Pragmatism
7
Q
All knowledge is constructed from human experience
A
Constructivism
8
Q
- Psychological research Is a driving force behind this in the field.
It allows researchers to explore new ideas, theories, and concepts, facilitating a deeper understanding of the human mind and behaviour. Through empirical investigations, researchers gather data and evidence, which helps validate or refine existing theories and develop new ones
A
The Advancement of Knowledge
9
Q
Was initially considered a breakthrough in the treatment of mental illness, and approximately 3,000 lobotomies were carried out in Norway in the period 1940–60. Today, the treatment is considered one of the greatest mistakes of modern medicine.
A
E.G. Lobotomy
10
Q
- Psychological research is essential in this, for individuals, couples, and families facing various challenges.
- By studying different therapeutic approaches, researchers can identify the most effective strategies for treating mental disorders, improving well-being, and enhancing the overall quality of life.
- For instance, in couples relationship counselling, psychological research helps therapists understand the dynamics of relationships, identify common issues couples face, and develop interventions that promote healthy communication, conflict resolution, and emotional connection.
A
informing evidence-based interventions
11
Q
This helps people understand their attachments to others to improve their relationships.
A
E.G. Emotionally focused therapy (EFT)
12
Q
What are the benefits of Emotionally Focused Therapy?
A
- Better emotional functioning
- Stronger bonds
13
Q
- EFT provides a language for healthy dependency between partners and looks at key moves and moments that define an adult love relationship.
- The primary goal of the model is to expand and re-organize the emotional responses of the couple.
A
- Better emotional functioning
14
Q
EFT is based on attachment theory, which suggests that attachments between people typically provide a safe place—a retreat from the world and a way to get comfort, security, and a buffer against stress.
A
Stronger Bonds
15
Q
Psychological research also significantly impacts this.
Evidence-based research findings provide the necessary data to support policy changes and allocate resources for mental health care. Policymakers rely on psychological research to make informed decisions regarding implementing mental health programs, developing prevention initiatives, and improving mental health services. By incorporating research findings into policy decisions, governments can better address the needs of individuals seeking mental health support and reduce the stigma associated with mental illness.
A
shaping public policy and mental health services.
16
Q
The implementation of the Philippine Mental Health Act of 2018
The state commits itself to promoting the well-being of people by ensuring that; mental health is valued, promoted and protected; mental health conditions are treated and prevented; timely, affordable, high quality, and culturally- appropriate mental health case is made available to the public; mental health service
A
Mental health act 11036:
17
Q
Through empirical studies and data analysis, researchers gain insights into various aspects of human behaviour, such as decision-making, motivation, and social interactions.
This knowledge contributes to understanding why individuals behave the way they do, both in normal and abnormal circumstances. It helps psychologists and other professionals in related fields develop interventions and strategies that facilitate positive behavioural changes and support psychological well-being
The sudden and uncontrollable paedophilia exhibited by a 40-year-old man was caused by an egg- sized brain tumour, his doctors have told a scientific conference.
And once the tumour had been removed, his sex-obsession disappeared.
A
Understanding Human Behavior
18
Q
Psychological research plays a vital role in ?
Researchers evaluate the effectiveness of different therapeutic approaches, interventions, and medications through rigorous scientific investigations. This allows mental health professionals to make informed decisions when designing treatment plans for their clients. Additionally, research helps identify risk factors, diagnostic criteria, and early intervention strategies for various mental disorders, enabling timely and appropriate support for needy individuals.
A
Improving Mental Health Treatment
19
Q
- Is a therapeutic technique in which an instructor guides participants in weekly practices like meditation and yoga in order to reduce stress levels.
- Is a popular method to help those with anxiety, depression, chronic pain, addiction, immune disorders, high blood pressure, and more
A
Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR)
20
Q
- There is no research without a proper this
- Are the supporting frameworks on a path to new scientific discoveries
- the backbone of the entire article and serves as a roadmap to the study design and data analysis. All study aims must be defined a priori and must not change throughout the article
A
aims and hypotheses of research
21
Q
- Is a summary of the goal or purpose of the research.
- or the scientific psychological community to accept this, the objective must explain why the research is needed and how it will expand our current knowledge.
- Is a broad starting point that gets narrowed down into hypothesis
A
Aim
22
Q
Is a predictive, testable statement about what the researcher expects to find in the study.
A
hypothesis
23
Q
what are the two types of the hypothesis?
A
Null hypothesis
Alternative hypothesis.
24
Q
- the variable that is manipulated by the experimenter.
- Is the factor that the researcher manipulates
/changes this can be naturally occurring in some instances) and is theorized to be the cause of a phenomenon
A
Independent Variable
25
- is the variable that is measured by the experimenter.
- Is the factor that the researcher measures because they believe that the changes in the IV will affect this.
Dependent Variable
26
- States that the independent variable does not influence the dependent variable. States that changes/ manipulating the IV will not affect the DV.
- Is a statement that there is no effect, no difference, or no relationship between variables
Null hypothesis
27
- States that the independent variable has an effect on the dependent variable. Often, it is the same (or very similar) to your research hypothesis.
- Is a statement that there is an effect, a difference, or a relationship between variables.
- Can be further sub-categorised into a one- or two-tailed hypothesis.
Alternative hypothesis
28
- Also known as a directional hypothesis
- Suggests that the results can go one way, e.g. it may increase or decrease.
One-tailed hypothesis
29
- Also known as a NON-directional hypothesis
-Is exactly the opposite; there are two ways the results could expectedly go.
Two-tailed hypothesis
30
Must meet a standard for the psychological research community to accept it.
Psychological research
31
Components of Hypotheses
When writing research hypotheses, there are several essential things to consider, including?
* The hypotheses must be clear and concise.
* It must be easy to understand and not contain irrelevant details.
* The researcher must predict what they expect to find based on reading previous research findings.
* The researcher must explain how they arrived at their predictions, citing evidence from prior research.
* The researcher must identify all variables they will study.
32
Type of variable is one that may have an impact on the relationship between the independent and dependent variable
EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES
33
These extraneous variables are related to the individual characteristics of each study participant that may impact how they respond. These factors can include background differences, mood, anxiety, intelligence, awareness, and other characteristics that are unique to each person.
Participant variables
34
These extraneous variables are related to things in the environment that may impact how each participant responds. For example, if a participant is taking a test in a chilly room, the temperature would be considered an extraneous variable. Some participants may not be affected by the cold, but others might be distracted or annoyed by the temperature of the room. (e.g. time of day, )
Situational variables
35
Clues in the environment that suggest how a participant should behave.
Demand characteristics
36
When a researcher unintentionally suggests clues for how a participant should behave.
Experimenter effects
37
- This type of variable can have an impact on the DV, which can make it difficult to determine if the results are due to the influence of the independent variable, ______________, or an interaction of the two.
An outside influence that changes the effect of both the independent and dependent variables. It is an unwanted variable that can lead to erroneous conclusions if not properly controlled or accounted for.
Confounding Variables
38
- Provide a way for independent variables (aka causal variables or intervention) to impact a dependent variable (aka an outcome or effect).
- They explain the how and why relationship between the two. It is always caused by the independent variable and influences the dependent variable. Consider as the “middleman” between independent and dependent variables.
- Without this your variables don’t have a relationship with each other. It also explains how the variables are affected.
Mediators
39
Describes how the variables are measured and defined in the study.
Before conducting a psychology experiment, it is essential to create firm ______________ both the independent variable and dependent variable.
Operational Definition
40
- Is a variable that affects the strength or dependent variables. It can change the way in direction of the relationship between the independent and which the independent variable influences the dependent variable.
- Can be either quantitative or qualitative.
Moderator variable
41
Moderators might be numerical values such as test scores, weight, age, IQ, etc.
Quantitative moderators
42
Mderators would be factors with no numeric value, such as gender, race, or education.
Qualitative moderators
43
how to generate a good research question?
- Questions
- Hypothesis / Aims
- Study design & Methodology
- Data Collection & Analysis
44
- Is a type of context research that takes place in the user's natural environment.
- (sometimes referred to as in situ, Latin for "in place") as opposed to a lab or an orchestrated setting.
- A research method that involves conducting observations and collecting data in a natural setting
- Methods like observing, interviewing, and interacting with participants in their environment, such as a workplace, community, or natural habitat
Field study
45
- Is a process where data is collected through a qualitative method
- Defined as a qualitative method of data collection.
- That aims to observe, interact and understand people while they are in a natural environment.
Field research
46
Field research encompasses a diverse range of social research methods including?
- Direct observation
- Limited participation
- Analysis of documents and other information,
- Informal interviews
- Surveys etc.
47
- Field study allows researchers to identify and observe the subjects and helps draw correlations between subjects and surroundings, and how the surroundings may influence the behavior.
- It gives an in-depth information on subjects because they are observed and analyzed for a long period of time.
- Field study allows researchers to fill the gaps in data which can be understood by conducting in- depth primary research.
Justifies the need for a field study
48
- Is to observe and interpret the subject of study in its natural environment.
Objective of field study
49
Tell if its Field Research or Lab Research:
Research is conducted in a natural setting.
Field Research
50
Tell if its Field Research or Lab Research:
Research resembles the natural setting.
Lab research
51
Tell if its Field Research or Lab Research:
observes, analyzes and describes what exists.
Field research
52
Tell if its Field Research or Lab Research:
Considered as a controlled investigation wherein the researcher manipulates particular factors under study.
Lab research
53
Tell if its Field Research or Lab Research:
Participants may or may not know about them being studied.
Field research
54
Tell if its Field Research or Lab Research:
Participants are informed based on the ethical norms.
Lab research
55
Tell if its Field Research or Lab Research:
Descriptive, developmental, correlational and survey related research.
Field research
56
Tell if its Field Research or Lab Research:
Research is based on conclusion of the hypothesis.
Lab Research
57
Tell if its Field Research or Lab Research:
Results are detailed and vast
Field Research
58
Tell if its Field Research or Lab Research:
Results are specific and rely on the experiment performed
Lab Research
59
In laboratory Research what research Methods is this techniques:
-Audio-visual recoding; observations.
-Altitude scale, open and closed questions, sroup response, sociometco scales
-Telephone, mail; email; tass web; in.
house: self-admanistered
Study of random belavior
60
In field Research what research Methods is this techniques:
-Checklists: observational beltavioral scales; core cards, photographic; tape recording:
interview of distant observers: photovoice.
Observation
61
In laboratory Research what research Methods is this techniques:
-Pre-testing; post-testing, measuring: recoding
Hypothesis testing
62
In field Research what research Methods is this techniques:
-Telephone, mail; email; tass web; in.
house: self-admanistered
Survey
63
In field Research what research Methods is this techniques:
Altitude scale, open and closed questions, sroup response, sociometco scales
Interviews
64
What are the types of methods for conducting a field research?
(1) Ethnographic Field Notes
(2) Qualitative Interviews
(3) Direct Observation
(4) Participant Observation
(5) Case Study
65
This type of field work is particularly associated with field work that records and analyzes culture, society or community.
Most commonly this method of research is used in social anthropology, societies and communities.
CASE IN POINT:
1. a researcher would like to understand how an Amazon tribe lives their life and operates,
he/she may chose to observe them or live amongst them and silently observe their day-to-day behavior.
(1) Ethnographic Field Notes
66
Is an expanded observation of social research and social perspective and the cultural values of an entire social setting.
In ______, entire communities are observed objectively
Ethnography
67
- Give researchers detailed information. This vast information is segregated in order to make inferences related to the sample group. This data is gathered by conducting interviews either informally, conversationally or in an open ended interview.
- Are CLOSE-ENDED questions that are asked directly to the research subjects.
- Could be either informal and conversational, semi-structured, standardized and open-ended or a mix of all the above three.
- This method of field research can use a mix of one-on-one interviews, FOCUS GROUP and TEXT ANALYSIS.
Qualitative Interviews
68
- Researchers gather information on their subjects through close visual observation. The researcher can record the observations and events as field notes holistically without a guided protocol.
- This form of research approach is termed as UNSTRUCTURED OBSERVATION.
- In this the observer is detached and does not obstruct the research setup. It does not work as an alternative method for conducting field research, and rather works as an initial approach to understand the behavior of the research. This type of method is extensively used in fields of sociology and anthropology wherein the researchers focus on recording social life details in a setting, community, or society.
Direct Observation
69
- The researcher takes part in the everyday life of the members chosen for observation. This gives the observer a better understanding of the study. Additionally, these observation notes are a primary type of data which the researchers later develop into detailed field notes.
_ You are interested in studying the behavior and social interactions of particular subculture.
Participant Observation
70
- Is an in-depth analysis of a person, situation or event. This method may look difficult to operate, however, it is one of the simplest ways of conducting research as it involves a deep dive and thorough understanding the data collection methods and inferring the data.
- This method originated in clinical medicine (the case history, i.e., the patient’s personal history).
- In psychology, this studies are often confined to the study of a particular individual.
- Not a research method, but researchers select methods of data collection and analysis that will generate material suitable for case studies.
Case study research
71
At what point should a field study be carried out?
- DISCOVERY PHASE OF RESEARCH
-THE INITIAL STAGE
-THE EXPLORATION
-SEEKING TO UNDERSTAND A PSYCH PHENOMENON and observing BEHAVIOR.
-WHEN YOU DO THIS, YOU CAN GENERATE HYPOTHESIS, IDENTIFY THE VARIABLES , thereby creating a firm FOUNDATION of your research.
72
- Field methods have not become cheaper at the same rate as other usability methods, and they can be challenging to facilitate.
- Beyond reasons of resource constraint, you might decide to stay out of the field in certain other cases.
- Strategies to prepare yourself to do your best work in the field.
When Should You Consider Other Methods?
73
When Should You Consider Other Methods?
1. Consider all possible scenarios
2. Choose a destination you’ll like.
3. Be in shape
4. don’t romanticize it.
74
Try to envision what your day-to-day schedule will look like.
plan on travel time, the season, and whether or not you need to move for a period of time. Will you stand out as a potential target? Do you speak the language? Are you familiar with the culture?
1. Consider all possible scenarios
75
If you’re going to do field work, you might as well enjoy where you are. Make sure you select a location that suits you, one where you can create a community, establish a network, and one you know you have the emotional capacity to endure.
2. Choose a destination you’ll like
76
It helps to have the physical fortitude to do the work you want to do in the place you want to do it. If your fieldwork requires you to climb mountains, leap, dive into frigid temperatures, or run far distances,.
3. Be in shape
77
Field method is not rose-colored glasses.
it's not all about beautiful landscapes and new experiences. There are also challenges like culture shock, and language barriers."
field studies can somewhat be facilitated remotely, with participants and facilitators each in their chosen locations.
4. don’t romanticize it.
78
- To prepare yourself to do your best work in the field.
- Can often be cheaper and faster than field or lab studies, since everyone avoids expensive and time-consuming travel to unfamiliar places. Being in your own space also offers comfort, familiar tools, and convenience.
Remote , interactive strategies and approach
79
What are the steps in field Study?
1. Identify a field
2. Establish connections
3. Observe the subjects and their interaction with the surroundings
4. Collect data from the observations
5. Analyze data and generate working hypothesis
6. Focus on topic of interest and connect with Theory
7. Conduct interview w focus groups
8. Complete the analysis and write a research study report
80
It is essential to acquire researchers who are specialized in the field of research. Moreover, their experience in the field will help them undergo the further steps of conducting the field research.
Identify and acquire researchers of the field
81
Post acquiring the researcher, they will work on identifying the topic of research. The researchers are responsible for deciding what topic of research to focus on based on the gaps observed in the existing research literature.
usually involves collaborative discussions among the researchers, where they leverage their collective experience to pinpoint an area of focus that is both significant and feasible for study.
Identify the topic of research
82
After fine tuning the research topic, researchers define the right method to approach the aim and objectives of the research.
By fine-tuning the topic, researchers clearly outline what they aim to achieve with their study. This involves defining the specific goals, hypotheses, or questions that the research intends to address.
Identify the right method of research
83
Based on the objectives, the observations begin. Observers/Researchers go on field and start collecting data either by visual observation, interviews or staying along with the subjects and experiencing their surroundings to get an in-depth understanding.
physically going to the location where the research is to be conducted.
Visit the site of the study and collect data
84
The researchers undergo the process of data analysis once the data is collected.
Once all necessary data has been collected, the next step is to analyze it to make sense of the findings.
For survey data, responses might be entered into a spreadsheet and categorized based on different variables (e.g., age, gender, responses to specific questions).
Analyzing interview transcripts to identify common themes or insights about participants' experiences.
Analyze the data acquired
85
The researchers document a detailed field study report, explaining the data and its outcome.
Giving the field study a suitable conclusion.
the process of presenting and sharing the findings from a research study in a clear and comprehensive manner
Prepare the field study report . Discuss the practical implications of the results and provide recommendations based on the study’s findings. This could involve suggesting further research, policy changes, or practical applications.
Acknowledge any limitations of the study and propose areas for future research to address any remaining questions or gaps.
Communicate the results
86
What are Field research
Pros?
* It allows researchers to draw correlations
* It is more reflective of real-life behavior
* It helps to gain in-depth insight into the subjects
87
What are Field research
Cons?
* It can be expensive and time-consuming
* It is up to the researcher's
ability
* It can cause difficulties in documentation
88
- The centerpiece of observational research
- Field notes are the researcher's written record of observations made, experiences had, and insights gleaned while in the field conducting research.
FIELD NOTES
89
- Can document what was said in interviews, focus groups, or recorded observations
- It contains data from what we saw, heard using qualitative methods e.g. social practices, cultural rituals, and non-verbal communication into qualitative data
Transcripts
90
Seeks out perspectives and beliefs from research participants, notes are useful for documenting what research participants do and how they behave in social practice
Qualitative interview
91
Serve as the first point of contact with the data to be analyzed. They also contain the researcher's interpretations and reflections on what has been observed
Notes from observations
92
Is to create a comprehensive record of the research setting and the phenomena being investigated
Field notes serve as the raw material for analysis, allowing researchers to revisit their observations, reflect upon them, and derive meaningful insights and interpretations
help in providing a level of detail and context about the setting and participants that would be difficult to recall accurately from memory alone
Primary purpose of a Field note
93
Can include descriptions of people, actions, and interactions
may also include sketches, diagrams, or other visual materials that aid in capturing the research setting
they may detail any particular incidents, events, or situations that you find noteworthy or that illustrate the phenomena you're investigating
Information
94
These notes should be comprehensive, capturing a range of information that covers both descriptive and reflective aspects of the field research experience.
Constructing field notes
95
Includes detailed accounts of the physical setting, the people involved, the activities and interactions observed, and the nonverbal cues and behaviors noticed.
Descriptive content:
96
Includes the researcher's thoughts, feelings, reactions, and initial interpretations related to what's being observed. This might encompass speculations, feelings, problems, ideas, hunches, impressions, and prejudices
Reflective content
97
A comprehensive field note typically includes these elements:
Headnotes
Descriptive observations
Reflective notes
Sketches and diagrams
Analytical insights
Methodological notes
98
These include the date, time, location, and other context-setting details of the observation period.
Headnotes
99
A detailed description of the physical setting, the participants, activities, and conversations.
Descriptive observations:
100
Personal reflections that reveal thoughts, ideas, concerns, or preliminary analysis about what is being observed.
Reflective notes:
101
Visual representations can be useful for depicting spatial relationships, layouts, or intricate details of observed objects.
Sketches and diagrams
102
Early propositions or interpretations based on what is being observed
Analytical insights
103
Information about any changes in research plans, the rationale for decisions, and lessons learned for future fieldwork.
Methodological notes
104
- Is an important component of qualitative research
- In research means using multiple datasets, methods, theories, and/or investigators to address a research question
To enhance the credibility and validity of a study by using multiple sources, methods, or perspectives to investigate a phenomenon.
Triangulation
105
Types of triangulation in research What are four main types of triangulation?
- Data triangulation
- Investigator triangulation
- Theory triangulation
- Methodological triangulation
106
- Using data from different times, spaces, and people.
- Data Source 1 to Data Source 2
- To understand the motivations behind cooperative behavior, you compile and analyze data from a sample of 130 US college students over a period of 8 months. Then, you repeat the experiment with comparable samples in different regions worldwide.
You collect data from participants in Germany and Japan to test your hypothesis using a wider sample.
Data triangulation
107
- Involving multiple researchers in collecting or analyzing data.
- Researcher 1 to Researcher 2
- For your behavioral data, you involve multiple observers to code your participants' behaviors. You provide them with training sessions and a manual to follow closely so they code behaviors the exact same way, They review video recordings of your participants playing team games in pairs and analyze and note down any cooperative behaviors. You check that their code sheets line up with each other to ensure high interrater reliability.
They also recalibrate the way they code behaviors intermittently for consistency.
Investigator triangulation
108
- Using varying theoretical perspectives in your research.
- Theory 1 to 2
- You believe there are two main competing motivational theories for why people behave cooperatively.
1. People cooperate for a sense of reward: they cooperate to feel good.
2. People cooperate to avoid guilt: they cooperate to avoid feeling bad
By gathering fMR data, you can investigate whether there's more brain activity in reward" related or in guilt-averse brain areas when people cooperate.
Theory triangulation
109
- Using different methodologies to approach the same topic
- Quantitative method to Qualitative method.
- In your study, you use behavioral, survey, and neural data to get a complete picture of what motivates people to behave cooperatively.
You recruit participants to perform team games in a behavioral controlled lab experiment and record observations. You also administer a survey to gather data about cooperation in their daily lives. Finally, you perform fMRI scans to assess neural mechanisms of cooperation.
Methodological triangulation
110
It can take many forms, from _______________ involving extended periods of observation and using an anthropological lens to shorter-term studies focusing on specific behaviors or events
Ethnographic studies
111
field study requires careful planning, preparation, and execution to ensure the data collected is ______________
valid and reliable.
112
How to plan a field study?
1. Define your research question
2. Identify your research site
3. Determine your data collection methods
4. Obtain necessary permissions
113
- Make it clear, concise, and specific.
- It is also open-ended, allowing for various possible answers rather than a simple yes or no response.
-It is relevant and contributes new knowledge to the existing literature.
Define your research question
114
Location where you’ll conduct your study and collect data
* the types of research sites to consider when planning a field study.
Identify your research site
115
For environmental or ecological research, you may need to conduct your study in a natural habitat, such as a forest, wetland, or coral reef.
Natural habitats
116
What type of research is this
example question:
* What are the experiences of the parents of children with Down syndrome enrolled in public preschools in the city?
Qualitative research
question
117
What type of research is this
example question:
What are the perceptions of night-shift oncology nurses at the local hospital?
Qualitative research
question
118
What type of research is this
example question:
* What is the demographic makeup of South Korea in 2020 compared to 20107
Quantitative
research question
119
What type of research is this
example question:
* How has the average sea level changed on the Norwegian coast over the 25 years?
Quantitative
research question
120
What type of research is this
example question:
* Is there a significant relationship between ice cream consumption and drowning deaths at the local freshwater lake?
Statistical research
question
121
What type of research is this
example question:
* Is there a significant relationship between salary and mental well-being on a scale of 1 to 5 of employees at the local shoe company?
Statistical research
question
122
For questions relating to organizational behavior or management, your location will be in a business environment, like a nonprofit or government agency
Organizations
123
If your research question relates to a particular ______, you may need to conduct your study at that ______, such as, at a protest, festival, or natural disaster.
Events
124
Your research site represents the population you're studying.
For example, if you're exploring cultural beliefs, ensure the community represents the larger population and you have access to a diverse group of participants.
Ensure
125
Choosing a will on the research question, the type of data needed, and the characteristic of the participants.
Determine your data collection methods
126
You can collect data on people's experiences, perspectives, and attitudes. In some instances, you can use phone or online __________.
Interviews
127
Organizational reports, letters, diaries, public records, policies, or social media posts can be analyzed to gain context.
Document analysis
128
- Depending on the research location and the nature of the study, you may require permission from local authorities, organizations, or individuals before conducting your research.
- This process is vital when working with human or animal subjects and conducting research in sensitive or protected environments.
- The process of this can be time-consuming, and failure to obtain the necessary permits can lead to legal and ethical issues.
Obtain necessary permissions
129
Use field research methods to study different communities' social and cultural practices.
For instance, this field might conduct participant observation in a remote community to understand their customs, beliefs, and practices.
Anthropology: Anthropologists
130
Use field research methods to learn the behavior of organisms and their interactions with the environment.
For example, this field might conduct field research on the behavior of birds in their natural habitat to understand their feeding habits, nesting patterns, and migration.
Ecology: Ecologists
131
May use field research methods to study social behavior and interactions.
For instance, this field might conduct participant observation in a workplace to understand organizational culture and communication dynamics.
Sociology: Sociologists
132
Use field research methods to study different regions’ physical and human contexts.
For example, this field might conduct field research on the impact of climate change on a particular ecosystem, such as a forest or wetland.
Geography: Geographers
133
Use field research methods to study human behavior in natural settings.
For instance, this field might conduct field research on the effects of stress on students in a school setting.
Psychology: Psychologists
134
Researchers studying _______ may use field research methods to study teaching and learning in real-world settings.
For example, you could use field research to test the effectiveness of a new teaching method in a classroom setting.
Education
135
Moral principles that govern psychological activity.
PSYCHOLOGICAL ETHICS
136
Psychologists should both be aware of and guard against those factors which may result in harm to others. The list of factors is long and includes financial, social and institutional considerations. This principle also includes the animals used in research.
Principle A: Beneficence and non-maleficence Psychologists seek to benefit and avoid harm to those whom they engage with professionally.
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In their professional work, psychologists are in relationships of trust with people. They are thus required to take responsibility for their actions, adhere to professional standards of conduct, and make clear exactly their role and obligations in all aspects of their professional activities. In relation to research and practice, psychologists are not merely concerned with their own personal activities but with the ethical conduct of their colleagues (widely defined). it is worthwhile quoting word for word one aspect of the professional fidelity ethic:
Psychologists strive to contribute a portion of their professional time for little or no compensation or personal advantage!
Principle B: Fidelity and responsibility
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This is very similar to Principle E of the APA code.
The implication is that psychologists should be more than keen to explain the research that they are asking someone to take part in. The psychologist will ensure that personal privacy and so forth will not be compromised in any way by their research including respecting confidentiality.
The psychologist will be willing to respect the voice of those taking part in the research.
BRITISH PSYCHOLOGICAL SOCIETY RESEARCH
ETHICS PRINCIPLES
Principle 1: Respect for the autonomy and dignity of persons
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Psychologists are expected to manifest integrity in all aspects of their professional work. One possible exception to this is dircumstances in which the ratio of benefits to harm af using deception Is large. Nevertheless, it remains the duty of psychologists even in these circumstances to seriously assess the possible harmful consequences of the deception including the ensuing distrust. The psychologist has a duty to correct these harmful consequences. The problem of deception is discussed in more detail in the text.
Principle C: Integrity - accuracy, honesty, truthfulness
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Badly designed and conducted research is a waste of resources. This study refers to the way in which the design and conduct of research should be such that the contribution of the research to the develapment of knowledge and understanding is ensured. The ethical implication of this is that the standards of their research are defensible and robust in the face of criticism.
Principle 2 Siclentific value
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Psychologists should exercise careful judgement and take care in order that all people experience just and fair psychological practices. Psychologists should be aware of the nature of their biases (potential and actual). They should not engage in, or condone, unjust practices and need to be aware of the ways in which injustice may manifest itself.
Principle D: Justice - equality of access to the benefits of psychology
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Individuals have the rights of privacy, confidentiality and self-determination, Some individuals manifest vulnerabilities which make it hard for some individuals to make autonomous decisions. Children are an obvious example. The principle also requires psychologists to be aware of and respect differences among cultures, individuals and roles such as age, culture, disability, ethnicity, gender, gender identity, language, national origin, race, religion, sexual orientation and socio-economic status. Psychologists should avoid and remove biases related to these differences but be vigilant for, and critical of, those who fall to meet this standard.
Principle E: Respect for people's rights and dignity
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Psychology exists in the context of society and its collective duty is the welfare of other human beings and non-human beings. The ethical consequence of this is that psychological research should be used for beneficial purposes for society. It also involves being aware and admitting the problematic nature of the process of interpreting psychological research findings.
Principle 3: Social responsibility
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This is similarko Principal A Beneficience and non-maleficence of the APA ethical code. It is the responsibility of psychology to consider research from the position of the participant in research. The aim is to serve the interests of the wellbeing of participants including their personal values and dignity. Ethically researchers need to be aware of the possible impact in this way of their research and try to minimize or obviate such risks.
Principie 4: Maximizing benefit and minimizing harm
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What are the General Principles (PAP)?
PRINCIPLE I : Respect for the Dignity of Persons and Peoples
PRINCIPLE II : Competent Caring for the Well-Being of Persons and Peoples
PRINCIPLE III : Integrity
PRINCIPLE IV : Professional and Scientific Responsibilities to Society
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- We do not just ask participants to sign in the consent form; we recognize that informed consent happens due to the willingness of the participants to work collaboratively with us.
- We make sure that the consent form is translated in language or dialect that the participants understand. We will take reasonable measures to guarantee that the information was understood.
- When we conduct research with persons below 18 years of age, we obtain informed assent from them and informed consent from their parents or legal guardian.
Informed Consent to research
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It is our duty to obtain informed consent from research participants before recording their voices or images for data collection, except when:
a. the research consists only of naturalistic observations in public places, and it is not anticipated th the recording will be used in a manner that could cause personal identification or harm; and,
b. the research design includes deception, and consent for the use of the recording is obtained durin debriefing.
Informed Consent for Recording Voices and Images in Research
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1. When we conduct research with our clients, students or subordinates, we do not coerce them to participate, rather, we inform them about their right not to participate and we do not reprimand or penalize them for doing so.
2. When rescarch participation is a course requirement or an opportunity for extra credit, we inform our clients, students or subordinates about equitable alternative activities that could fulfill their educational or employment goals.
Research Participation of Client, Students and Subordinate:
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1. In all aspects, we respect the rights, safeguard the dignity, and protect and promote the welfare of research participants.
2. Before beginning any research work in a community not our own or not familiar to us, we obtain essential information about their mores, culture, social structure, customs, and traditions.
3. We respect and abide by their cultural expectations, provided that this does not contravene any of the ethical principles of this Code of Ethics.
4. We respect the rights of research participants should they wish to discontinue their participation at any time. We are responsive all throughout the research to participants non-verbal indications of a desire to withdraw from participation, especially if the person has difficulty with verbal communication, is a young child, or is culturally unlikely to communicate.
5. We do not contribute nor engage in rescarch which contravenes international humanitarian law, such as development of methods intended to torture persons, development of prohibited weapons, or destruction of the environment.
6. It is our duty to ask participants about any factors that could bring forth potential harm, such as preexisting medical conditions, and to detect, remove, or correct any foreseeable undesirable consequences prior to rescarch proper.
7. To ensure that participants' rights are protected, we seek independent and sufficient ethical review of the possible risks our research may pose to them.
Rights and Dignity of Participants
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We respect the privacy and psychological well-being of persons studied based on observational research. This method is acceptable only when those being observed would expect to be observed by strangers.
Observational Research.
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1. We debrief by informing the participants that they have contributed to the body of knowledge and we make sure that they have also learned from their participation.
2. We give participants an opportunity to obtain the nature, results, and conclusions of the research. We also take reasonable steps to correct any misconceptions participants have about our research, especially when the participants were led to believe that the research has a different purpose.
3. When participants* trust may have been lost due to incomplete disclosure or temporarily leading participants to believe that the research had a different purpose, we seek to re- establish trust and assure them that the research procedures were carefully structured and necessary for scientifically valid findings.
4. If scientific or humane values justify delaying or withholding this information, we take reasonable measures to reduce the risk of harm.
5. When we become aware that our research procedures have harmed a participant, we act to correct and minimize the harm.
6. If after debriefing, the participants decided to withdraw their data, we shall respect and grant their request. The participants have the right to appeal that their own data, including recordings, be destroyed.
Debriefing
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1. We do not use animals in research, except when there is a sufficient reason to say that it is the only way to:
a. further increase understanding of the structures and processes underlying human or animal behavior;
b. increase understanding of the specific species used in the study: or
c. eventually augment benefits to the health and welfare of humans or other animals.
2. We comply with current. laws, regulations and professional standards when we acquire, care for, use, and dispose animals used in research
J. Humane Care and Use of Animals in Research
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1. We may dispense informed consent only on the following conditions:
a. when we believe that the research would not distress or create harm to participants or general welfare or when our study involves:
i. the study or normal educational practices, curricula, or classroom management methods conducted in educational settings.
ii. only anonymous questionnaires, naturalistic observations, or archival research for which disclosure of responses would not place participants at risk of criminal or civil liability or damage their financial standing, employability, or reputation, and confidentiality is protected
iii. the study of factors related to job or organization effectiveness conducted in organizational settings which would not affect the participants" employability, and when confidentiality is protected; or,
b. when it is mandated by law or is an institutional regulation.
Dispensing with Informed Consent for Research
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1. We refrain from conducting research involving deception, except:
a. when we have determined that the use of deceptive techniques is justified by the study's significant prospective scientific, educational, medical, or applied value; and.
b. when effective non-deceptive alternative procedures are not possible.
2. We do not deceive prospective research participants about our study that is reasonably expected to interfere with their decision to give informed consent. We ensure that the level of risk, discomfort, or inconvenience that could cause physical pain or severe emotional distress is not withheld from he participants.
3. It is our duty to explain any deception as an integral feature of design and conduct of an experiment to those who participated in research as soon as possible, preferably at the end of their participation but not later than the end of data gathering.
Deception in Research
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1. We may fairly compensate participants for the use of their time, energy, and knowledge, unless such compensation is refused in advance.
2. We make reasonable efforts not to offer undue, excessive or, inappropriate reward, financial
3. Other inducements for research participation, Which could likely pressure or coerce participation.
When we offer psychological and professional services as an incentive for research participation, it is our duty to clarify the nature of the services, including the risks, obligations and limitations.
Offering Inducements for Research Participation
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We shall avoid procedures/methodologies that will adversely affect the environment.
Care for the Environment
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1. When reporting results of research activities, we will use language that is appropriate and comprehensible to the target population.
2. Whenever feasible and appropriate, we consult with groups, organizations, or communities being studied the findings of our research so as to increase the accuracy of interpretation and to minimize the risk of misunderstanding, misinterpretation or misuse.
Reporting Research Results
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We do not present any portions of other's work or data as our own, even if the source is cited occasionally.
Plagiarism
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1. We take responsibility and credit only for work we have actually done and credit others (including students and research assistants) for work they have actually performed or to which they have substantially contributed.
2. We ensure that principal authorship and co-authorship accurately reflect the relative scientific or professional contributions of the individuals involved, regardless of their relative status. Mere possession of an institutional position, such as department chair or head of the research unit, does not justify authorship credit. Minor contributions to the research or to the writing for publications must be acknowledged appropriately, such as in footnotes or an introductory statement
Publication Credit
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* Institutional approval
* a researcher's study must be reviewed and authorized by a governing body within the
, such as an ethics committee or review board.
* This approval ensures that the research complies with institutional policies, ethical standards, and legal requirements, particularly when involving human or animal subjects. It's a safeguard to protect participants, uphold the integrity of the research, and minimize potential risks.
Preparatory stages of planning research
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