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Pathophysiology > Prerequisite Material > Flashcards

Prerequisite Material Flashcards

1
Q

Anatomy & Physiology VS. Pathophysiology

A
  • Anatomy vs. Physiology: structure determines function

- Pathophysiology: Diseases mess up structure and/or function

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2
Q

What are 8 major cellular functions?

A
  1. Movement: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle
  2. Conductivity: nerve and muscle cells
  3. Metabolic Absorption: epithelial cells of the GI and urinary tracts
  4. Secretion: cells of endocrine glands, mucous glands, and reproductive organs
  5. Excretion: release of waste products
  6. Respiration: Cells absorb oxygen to transform nutrients (glucose) into ATP (energy)
  7. Reproduction: tissue growth to enlarge or just for tissue maintenance
  8. Communication (local or distant) between cells to maintain homeostasis
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3
Q

What are the 3 principal parts of the cell?

A
  1. Nucleus
  2. Cytoplasm
  3. Plasma Membrane
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4
Q

Nucleus

A
  • Controls the center of the cell
  • The nuclear envelope (2 layers) has nuclear pores that allow movement of substances in and out of the nucleus by both active and passive transport
  • Groups of coiled DNA during replication are called chromosomes
  • Uncoiled DNA called chromatin
  • The nucleus contains hereditary factors (genes) that control a cell and direct a cell’s activities
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5
Q

Cytoplasm

A
  • Includes all of the cellular content betwen the plasma membrane and the nucleus.
    • Organelles (cytoskeleton, ribosome, Golgi)
    • Cytosol: aqueous solutions making up about half of
      a cell’s volume
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6
Q

Ribosomes

A
  • An organelle
  • Are the site of protein synthesis
  • Ribosomes can be free, attached to ER, or in the mitochondria
  • Ribosomes are constructed of two subunits created in the nucleolus and assembled in the cytosol
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7
Q

Name 8 different organelles

A
  1. Ribosomes
  2. Endoplasmic Reticulum
  3. Golgi Complex
  4. Lysosomes
  5. Peroxisomes
  6. Mitochondria
  7. Vaults
  8. Cytoskeleton
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8
Q

Endoplasmic Reticulum

A
  • An organelle
  • The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a network of membranes that form sacs or tubules. There are 2 layers:
  1. Rough ER (RER): is studded with ribosomes and is connected to the nuclear membrane and extends throughout the cell
  2. Smooth ER (SER): does not synthesize proteins, but it does synthesize phospholipids, fats, and steroids
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9
Q

Golgi Complex

A
  • An organelle
  • Proteins that are synthesized at ribosomes attached to ER are transported to the Golgi complex
  • In the Golgi complex, the proteins are modified and packaged for excretion and transport to their end destinations
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10
Q

Lysosomes

A
  • An organelle
  • Lysosomes = dissolving bodies
  • Lysosomes are formed in the Golgi complex and have as many as 40 digestive enzymes.
  • These digestive enzymes work best at a low pH, so lysosomes have a H+ pump to decrease their pH to around 5. A lysosome will digest a cell and return the organelles to be reused.
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11
Q

Peroxisomes

A
  • An organelle
  • Like lysosomes, they destroy materials for the cell
  • Like lysosomes, they are membrane bound
  • Uniquie properties: 1) they can replicate themselves, 2) they make hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) which is itself toxic and needs to be inactivated by catalase and other enzymes.
  • Common in liver and kidney (“detox” function of these organs)
  • They break down fatty acids in beta-oxidation (using fats for energy)
  • Peroxisomes create free radicals. (an unpaired electron)
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12
Q

Mitochondria

A
  • An organelle
  • Known as the “powerhouse” of the cell - they generate ATP
  • Cells may have from 100 to thousands of mitochondria
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13
Q

Vaults

A
  • An organelle
  • Ribonucleoproteins
  • Implicated in resistance to cancer chemotherapy
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14
Q

Cytoskeleton

A
  • An organelle
  • Made up of 3 parts:
    1. Microfilaments (actin)
    2. Intermediate filaments (keratin, vimentin, neurofilament, and protein)
    3. Microtubule (tubulin + microtuble associated proteins)
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15
Q

Cytosol

A

Cytosol is the solvent (water) and solutes (salts and dissolved proteins) that make up the soluble part of the cytoplasm
- Cytoplasm is the cytosol plus organelles

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16
Q

How much of the fluid in your body is intracellular and how much is extracellular? What about potassium, sodium, and chloride?

A
  • Your body contains 2/3 intracellular fluid and 1/3 extracellular fluid
  • The majority of your potassiam is intracellular, and the majority of our sodium and chloride is extracellular.
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17
Q

Axonal Transport through the Cytoskeleton

A

Transport of substance over a long distance relies on microtubule “railroad tracks” plus protein “engines”.

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18
Q

Plasma Membrane

A
  • Separates the cell’s internal environment from the external environment
  • Selective, semipermeable barrier
  • The basic frame of the plasma membrane is the lipid bylayer
  • The plasma membrane is made of 3 types of lipids: phospholipids, cholesterol, and glycolipids
  • The lipid bylayer is amphipathic (has polar and non polar parts) Polar ends face extracellular environment and intracellular environment, while non poler ends face eachother in the middle
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19
Q

What 3 lipids are the plasma membrane made up of?

A
  1. Phosoplipids
  2. Cholesterol
  3. Glycolipids
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20
Q

What are 3 types of proteins on the plasma membrane?

A
  1. Peripheral membrane: do not cross lipid bylayer (either outside or inside the cell)
  2. Integral membrane: are inside the lipid bylayer, but don’t necessarily go all the way through
  3. Transmembrane proteins: cross lipid bylayer all the way through.
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21
Q

What are the functions of the plasma membrane?

A
  • It separates the cellular components from the surrounding environment (intracellular from extracellular)
  • Facilitates recognition of the cell
  • Provides receptors and enzymes
  • Regulates entry and exit of substances
  • Provides an anchor for the cytoskeleton.
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22
Q

Receptors on the Plasma Membrane (receptor proteins)

A
  • Are cellular recognition sites that bond to a specific substance for a certain cellular function.
  • Ligands: hormones, antigens, neurotransmitters, drugs and infectious agents (Ligands are chemicals that bind to receptors)
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23
Q

What are 3 Extracellular Matrix Proteins?

A
  1. Fibronectin
  2. Laminin
  3. Proteoglycans
  • Integrin links ECM to cell surface
  • Collagen fibers link ECM to connective tissue
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24
Q

What are 3 types of Extracellular Matrix Fibers?

A

The extracellular matrix holds everything together

  1. Collagen Fibers
  2. Elastic Fibers
  3. Reticular Fibers
  • The extracellular matrix is like a jelly
  • Fibroblasts secrete extracellular matrix
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25
Q

What is a cell junction?

A

Cell junctions link cells together and helps them to communicate

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26
Q

What are 3 examples of cell junctions?

A
  1. Desmosomes
  2. Tight Junctions
  3. Gap Junctions
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27
Q

Desmosomes

A
  • A type of cell junction
  • Use cadherin and intermediate filaments, hooking it to the cytoskeleton
  • “Spot welds” (or buttons) between two cells
28
Q

Tight Junctions

A
  • A type of cell junction
  • Are found where a tight, leak proof seal is needed. It keeps materials from leaking out of the following organs:

Stomach
Intestines
Urinary Bladder

29
Q

Gap Junctions

A
  • A type of cell junction
  • Are like little tunnels connecting the cells
  • Pores (connexons) allow substances
30
Q

What is Cellular Communication, and what are the 3 Types of Cellular Commmunication?

A

The nervous system and the endocrine system “blend together”, sharing the same neurotransmitters, hormones, receptors, and signaling pathways. The difference is the distance that information travels

The 3 types are:

  1. Autocrine: cells signaling themselves
  2. Paracrine: cells signaling neighbors
  3. Hormonal and Neurohormonal: cells signaling distant targets
31
Q

Autocrine Stimulation

A

A type of cellular communication:

Cells signaling themselves

32
Q

Paracrine Stimulation

A

A type of cellular communication

Cells signaling neighbors

33
Q

Hormonal and Neurohormonal Stimulation

A

A type of cellular communication

Cells signaling distant targets

34
Q

What are the 2 types of Signal Transduction?

A
  • Ionotropic Neurotransmitter Receptors: cause a change in the ionic environment of the neuron
  • Metabotropic Neurotransmitter Receptors: cause a change in the biochemical (metabolic) environmentof the neuron
35
Q

Metabrotropic Receptors - Second Messengers

A

A wide variety of hormones, neurotransmitters and other factors activate these metabotropic receptors

There are 2 major second messenger pathways:

  1. Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cyclic AMP or cAPM)
    The middleman is the G protein that carries GTP or GDP
  2. calcium (Ca++)
    Also uses G protein middleman. Activates phospholipase C
36
Q

What are the 3 phases of food and production of cellular energy?

A
  1. Digestion
  2. Glycolysis
  3. Citric acid cycle + oxidative phosphorylation
37
Q

What are some types of membrane transport?

A
  1. Passive Transport
  2. Mediated Transport
  3. Facilitated Diffusion
  4. Active Transport
38
Q

Diffusion / Passive Transport

A

Anything that is small, neutrally charged, and lipid soluble can pass through the cell membrane without any assistance.

39
Q

Facilitated Diffusion

A

Faciliated diffusion is similar to diffusion, but it requires the assistance of a carrier molecule because the substance is too polar or too big to pass on its own

40
Q

Ion Channels

A
  • A type of facilitated diffusion
  • Non-polar tails of lipid molecules prevent charged molecules, like ions, from crossing the cell membrane
  • They allow ions to pass down their concentration gradient (from high concentration areas to low)
  • Some are open all the time
  • Some are gated: open and close on demand
41
Q

Active Transport

A
  • Requires ATP as an energy source
  • Found in virtually all cells
  • Uses a pre-existing, permanent gradient to drive movement of molecules. For example if an Na+ ion has a high concentration inside the cell, and a low concentration outside, and the ion wants to come inside the cell.
42
Q

Endocytosis

A
  • A type of active transport
  • Cell surface proteins (receptors) can bind molecules the cell wants to take in.
  • After the material binds to the receptor,it is taken into the cell (endocytosis)
  • Exocytosis is the same process in reverse.
43
Q

Antiports

A

Moving two solutes in the opposite direction

44
Q

Symports

A

Moving two solutes in the same direction

45
Q

Resting Membrane Potential (Nerve and Muscle)

A
  • Resting (not conducting an impulse)
  • Potential (a difference in the electrical charte)

A resting membrane: inside the membrane is negatively charged compared with the outside (positive)

46
Q

Resting Membrane Potential in Excitable Cells

A

9 Times as many K+ leak channels open as Na+ leak channels

  • K+ equilibrium at about -80mV
  • Na+ equilibrium at about +20mV
  • Resting potential 9/10 of the way between these = -70mV
47
Q

Action Potential Steps

A
  1. Resting Membrane Potential: Voltage gated Na+ channels are in the resting state and Voltage gated K+ channels are closed.
  2. Stimulus causes depolarization to threshold

Absolute Refractory Period
3. Voltage-gated Na+ channel activation gates are open

  1. Voltage-gated K+ channels are open; Na+ channels are inactivating

Relative Refractory Period
5. Voltage-gated K+ channels are still open; Na+ channels are in the resting state

48
Q

Cell Cycle

A
  • When cells become damaged, diseased, or simply worn out, they must be replaced. Cells have to divide to repair and replace old or damaged cells
  • In somatic (non-reproductive) cell division, both the nucleus (mitosis) and the cytoplasm (cytokinesis) divide
  • For a cell to divide, it must receive a stimulatory signal from a cytokine called a growth factor. Specific cells respond to specific growth factors
49
Q

Growth Factors (Cytokines)

A

Transmit signals within and between cells
Regulate checkpoints in the cell cycle:
- Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF): Encourages proliferation of connective tissue
- Nerve growth factor (NGF): Encourages proliferation of nerve cells
- Insulin-like growth factors I & II (IGF I & II): works with PDGF to encourage proliferation of fat cells and connective tissue
- Erythropoietin: encourages proliferation of red cell precursor cells

50
Q

What are the stages of Mitosis?

A

Mitosis is the actual active division of the cell

  1. Prophase
  2. Metaphase
  3. Anaphase
  4. Telephase

Interphase is not a “true” phase of mitosis, but all other parts of the cell cycle besides these 4 phases are Interphase.

51
Q

What is Cytokine?

A

A chemical produced in one cell that stimulates a response (proliferation or mitosis) another cell.

52
Q

Prophase

A
  • Chromatin becomes chromosomes
  • Dissolving of the nuclear membrane
  • Centrosomes migrate to opposite sides to form the mitotic spindle.
53
Q

Metaphase

A

Chomosomes line up right in the middle of the cell (take the picture during metaphase to look at chromosomes)

54
Q

Anaphase

A

Mitotic spindle peels the chromosomes apart into chromatids

55
Q

Telophase

A

They pull apart and we fully divide the cell and begin reforming the nuclear membrane

56
Q

What are the 4 types of tissues in the body?

A
  1. Epithelial Tissue: Forms coverings protecting the body from the outside world. (also includes lumen (opening) of the cut tube, it is “outside”)
  2. Connective Tissue: Holds structure of body
  3. Muscular Tissue: Moves body parts
  4. Nervous Tissue: Sensation, information processing, and control of body parts
57
Q

Epithelial Tissue

A
  • Has one free surface (apical surface)
  • One surface attached to basement membrane. (basal lamina on top, reticular lamina on bottom)
  • Contains underlying connective tissue

Locations:

  1. Barriers to keep outside out and inside in
  2. Barriers that secrete substances
  3. Barriers for protection
58
Q

What are the classifications of Epithelia?

A

Arrangement: Simple, Pseudostratified, Stratified
Shape: Squamous, Cuboidal, Columnar

59
Q

Connective Tissue

A

Embryonic Connective Tissue

  • Mesenchyme
  • Mucous connective tissue

Mature Connective Tissue

  • Loose connective tissue
  • Dense connective tissue
  • Cartilage
  • Bone
  • Liquid
60
Q

Name the 3 types of Muscle Tissue

A
  1. Skeletal Muscle
  2. Cardiac Muscle
  3. Smooth Muscle
61
Q

Skeletal Muscle

A
  • also called voluntary muscle
  • under our voluntary control
  • Moves body at joints
  • multiple cells fuse to form long muscle fibers, so it has multiple, eccentric nuclei
62
Q

Cardiac Muscle

A
  • found only in heart
  • not under voluntary control
  • striated appearance like skeletal
  • intercalated discs
  • branched structure
63
Q

Smooth Muscle

A
  • Single cells, central nucleus
  • Not under voluntary control
  • Arteries, gut tube
64
Q

Nervous Tissue

A

Only tissue in body that can manipulate electrical charges to receive, process, and transmit information

  • muscle cells manipulate charges but contract and don’t send information
  • all other tissues have electrical charges but most can’t control them
65
Q

What are the 2 nervous tissue cell types?

A
  1. Neurons: information processing

2. Glial cells (glia): support and maintenance

Pathophysiology (2 decks)

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