preserving autocracy 1855-94

Question 1

political structure in 1855

Answer 1

• autocratic empire, tsar at top
• provincial government expected to keep order on estates
• civil servants ranked 1-14

Question 2

military in 1855

Answer 2

– Made up of 1.5 million conscripted surfs.
– Forced into service for 25 years
– Me to live in ‘military colony’
– Elite regiments of mounted coax, special social privileges

Question 3

what percent of Russia were peasants in 1855?

Answer 3

90% born rurally

Question 4

structure of orthodox Church in 1855

Answer 4

– Tsar was head “embodiment of God on earth “
– Over procurator: appointed by Tsar , highest church official
– holy Synod: ruling body of bishops

Question 5

population of Russia in 1855

Answer 5

69 million people
Half were Russian ethnically
Many different cultures/customs/languages/religions

Question 6

Control in 1855

Answer 6

– Secret police was Third Section
– Police date (no freedom of speech, press, travel abroad)
– political meetings/strikes forbidden

Question 7

Economic situation in 1855

Answer 7

– Russian economy mostly rural.
– much of territory was in hospitable/formable
– mid 19th century Russia = Europes main exporter of agricultural produce, fast natural reserves
– progress due to surf based economy, inhibited economy with no entrepreneurs, incentive, wages. Only small scale business.

Question 8

social context in 1855

Answer 8

start divide between landowning elite and surf majority
Absence of any coherent middle class (a small number of professionals “intelligensia“)
serf population liable for taxes (direct and indirect) which funded government

Question 9

how many forces did the British send to the Russian chrome (attacked naval base of Sebastopol)?

Answer 9

60,000

Question 10

Russian incompetence in Crimean war

Answer 10

– Technology
– transport
– inadequate leadership and conscripted army
– Diseases, e.g. cholera outbreak

Question 11

When/what was treaty of Paris?

Answer 11

– 1856
– humiliation, prevent prevented Russian warships from using black sea in times of peace

Question 12

impacts of Crimean war

Answer 12

– Revealed Russia’s military/administrative inadequacies
– Trade disrupted
– Peasant uprising escalated + intelligensia renewed cries for advancement
– Embarrassment/humiliation

Question 13

How many subs were emancipated in 1861?

Answer 13

51 million

Question 14

What were possible motives for emancipation?

Answer 14

1) Alexander II‘s progressive ideas, liberal tutor and progressive nobles
2) increase in peasant uprising since 1840s, prevent rising coming from below rather than above
3) inefficiencies of crimean war (Dimitry Milyutin pleaded for reform to strengthen the state, modernise army)

Question 15

Who were the enlightened bureaucrats?

Answer 15

Group of progressive nobles, including Duke Konstantin, Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna and Milyutin brothers

Question 16

Who were the Milyutin brothers?

Answer 16

Nikolai- influential voice in Ministry of internal affairs, favouring reform and establishment zemstva. Helped draft terms of emancipation edict.

Dmitry- minister of War from 18 61–81 overall military reforms, opposed serfdom morally + economically

Question 17

Disorder between 1840 – 1859, why?
contributes to emancipation

Answer 17

• 18 40 –1844, fewer than 30 outbreaks
  – 18 44–18 59 more than doubled.
  Result of:
  – Landowners pushing production/higher rents.
  – protest against military conscription during Crimean war, continued after freedom was not granted

Question 18

What did emancipation edict give?

Answer 18

– Granted serves freedom + allotment of land
– Landons received government compensation.
– free services required to pay redemption payments for 49 years for land.
– had to remain within mir until payments made
– around 15% still remained “temporarily“ obligated to landlords until 1881

Question 19

results of emancipation

Answer 19

– Some peasants did well and became cool lax, produced surplus for export/selling.
– some sold allocation and to cities.
– many peasants felt cheated, land allocations rarely fair. Small allotments post inheritance issues
– Mir system proved traditional and backwards ( by 1878 only 50% could produce surplus)
– Restrictions on travel, resentment of Kulas, Landon’s resented loss of influence

Question 20

Military reforms

Answer 20

1874 - 75
– Organised by Dimitri Milyutin, created smaller more professional/efficient, less expensive army
– Conscription compulsory for all classes from age 21, service length reduced from 25 to 15 years.
– punishments less severe, military colonies abandoned. Better medical care and provisioning, literacy rates improved
– modern weaponry/command structure introduced.

Question 21

When did Russia fight war against Turkey?

Answer 21

18 77–78

Question 22

Local government reforms

Answer 22

18 64–70
– Local councils established (zemstva)
– voting procedure allowed nobility to dominate
– Power to improve public services e.g. roads, schools, prisons
– 1870 town Council Dumas set up
– Never truly peoples assemblies, attracted intelligensia/nobles

Question 23

judiciary reforms

Answer 23

1864
– Equality before law, single system of local provincial and national court (peasants used volost courts)
– innocent until proven guilty.
– criminal cases heard before barristers plus jury, courts open to public
– Judges appointed by Tsar

Question 24

Education reforms

Answer 24

18 63–64
– universities could govern themselves and choose own staff.
– responsibility of schooling from Orthodox Church to zemstva
– Primary and secondary education extended, (number of primary schools rose from 8000 to 23,000, 1856–1880) could progress to university
– Schools declared open to all regardless of class and sex, women from 1870

Question 25

Censorship reform

Answer 25

1858–70 – “liberalisation “, initial relaxation of press censorship. – foreign publications permitted, books and newspapers. Comment on government policy allowed – short live growth of books, journals, newspapers. Growth of critical writing re-tightening of government control

Question 26

when was Alexander II assassination attempt and what was effect?

Answer 26

1866, shook confidence so more repressive policy adopted

Question 27

Alexander II conservatism’s from 1866

Answer 27

– Tightening of education (Dimitry Tolstoy appointed). Less access to university, traditional curriculum, censorship tightened – police and control: 3rd section encouraged, persecution of minorities, show trials. trial of 50 (1877), trial of 193 (77– 78) Sympathetic juries found not guilty

Question 28

what was the Loris- Melikov Constitution?

Answer 28

– Late 1870s = political crisis. Russo Turkish war, famine in countryside, industrial recession. multiple attempts on Tsar‘s life. – Count Loris-Melikov: Relaxation of controls, taxes, censorship, third section abolished. -Report of zemstva demands: inclusion of elected representatives, debate of state decrees –Tsar assassinated same day

Question 29

when was Alexander II assassinated?

Answer 29

13 March 1881. Bombed by people’s will

Question 30

how did Alexander III change approach?

Answer 30

– Suited by nationalist/absolutist Pobedonostev – “manifesto of unshakeable autocracy“ 1881 – Hanging of revolutionaries – Loris-Melikov proposals abandoned, reforming ministers resigned

Question 31

when was land Captain created and what did it do?

Answer 31

1889 – override elections/decisions of Zemstva – Responsible for law enforcement/government in countryside, could ignore judicial process and overturn court judgements

Question 32

policing anti-reforms

Answer 32

– okhrana led by von Plehve 81-84, Durnovo 84- – Drive for surveillance and double agents, spies/counterspies – police agents could search, arrest, detained, question, imprison, torture, intercept mail

Question 33

Judicial anti-reforms

Answer 33

– 1885 decree allowed minister of justice greater control e.g. dismiss judges – 1887, closed court sessions allowed, property/education for jurors raised – 1889 town judges chosen by central govt. Volost courts controlled by land captains.

Question 34

education anti reforms

Answer 34

– 1884 charter appointed university staff based on religious, moral, patriotic orientation rather than academic. – universities abolished for women. – lowest classes restricted to primary education. – University closely supervised

Question 35

censorship anti-reforms

Answer 35

– 1882 “temporary regulations “allowed newspapers shut down, life ban on editors/publishers – all publications officially approved, libraries restricted – extended to theatre/art/culture, russification enforced

Question 36

Alexander III economic allievences

Answer 36

– 1881 redemption fees reduced – 1885 poll tax abolished, inheritance tax for nobles

Question 37

When were the two Polish rebellions?

Answer 37

1830, 1863

Question 38

Russification measures

Answer 38

– Destruction of non-Russian cultures in Poland and Finland (e.g. diet reorganised in 1892 to weekend political influence, Polish national bank closed 1885) – Russian language increasingly demanded everywhere(e.g. 1883 laws limiting use of Ukrainian) – adherence to Orthodox Church encouraged, laws benefited orthodox faith (e.g. Baltic region, 37,000 Lutherans converted to take advantage of special measures) – Polish Catholic monastery shutdown, 1883 no new places of worship allowed to be built/propaganda spread

Question 39

results of russification

Answer 39

– Mass resistance (1888, 332 cases of mass disturbance in 61/92 districts) troubles curved, military employed – resentment from educated/wealthy fins, poles, Baltic Germans. Petition for more liberties – despite genuine intentions, intensified non-Russian feeling.

Question 40

Jewish pogroms

Answer 40

1881–84 – break out in Yelizavetgrad Ukraine, immediate cause unknown (perhaps business competition/encouraged by Okhrana) – riot spread across Ukraine and Poland, 16 major cities affected – sporadic programs continued after 1884

Question 41

What were the May laws?

Answer 41

1882. 1) forbidden to settle outside city/towns of fewer than 10,000 people. 2) mortgages/renting outside cities and towns banned 3) forbidden to do business on Sundays/Christian holidays. Essentially condemned to living in ghetto

Question 42

Impact of antisemitism

Answer 42

– Many Jews left countries/exiled/deported from 1890 – reduced labour force and population. – disproportionate number joined revolutionary groups/Marxist organisations e.g. Trotsky, Zinoviev

Question 43

moderate liberal opposition

Answer 43

– Made up of educated/liberal intelligensia – possessed wealth, time, interest in political matters. May have travelled abroad – philosophical ideas e.g. nihilism/anarchism – westernises versus Slavophiles – Natural home was zemstva, reduction of powers by Alexander III bitterly disappointed – 1891–92 famine showed importance and potential of zemstva

Question 44

Radical opposition/thinkers

Answer 44

– “ Young Russia “ started fires destroying 2000 Saint Petersburg shops – Chernyshevsky authored “what is to be done “1862 suggesting peasants = leaders of revolution change –Bakunin equals socialist, suggested collective ownership of land. Translated Marx “the communist manifesto “1869.

Question 45

The Tchaikovsky Circle

Answer 45

– Set up 1868–69 – literary society, printed/published distributed scientific and revolutionary literature including dust capital – around 100 people spread between major cities, sought social revolution

Question 46

The populists (Narodniks)

Answer 46

– “going to the people “ – 1874 Lavrov encouraged around 2000 liberals to travel to countryside and persuade peasantry about socialism. – ignorance, superstition, prejudice, loyalty to Tsar - experienced hostility. Around 1600 arrested. – Second attempt in 1876, no more successful, more show trials followed – – e.g. Mikhail Romas set up cheap fruit and veg store, assistant killed and mutilated by rich Kulaks

Question 47

Land and Liberty

Answer 47

set up 1877, continued populism. Some political assassinations e.g. head of third section 1878 1879 split. – Black partition, Plekhanov Worked peacefully among peasantry, publishing radical materials, hopes to stimulate social change without violence. Weakened by arrests in 1880–81. – The peoples will, Mikhailov Planted by in third section, advocated violent methods, assassinated Alexander II in 1881

Question 48

opposition after 1881

Answer 48

– Assassination of Alexander II marked turning point, more security. Effectively ended populous movement – self education circles continued underground e.g. “emancipation of labour “ founded by Plekhanov smuggled literature – Marxist discussion developed, Plekhanov argued too early

Question 49

Von Reutern economy

Answer 49

1862–78 – Treasury reformed e.g. new tax collecting arrangements/budgets – tax farming abolished, more indirect taxation. – trade promoted, reduction of import duties from 1863. – government subsidies to enable private development e.g. railways – foreign investment encouraged – annual average growth rate of 6% – new areas of industry e.g. oil extraction and iron works Overall comparatively weak, government that and weak currency, limitations of emancipation edict and crippling taxation

Question 50

Vyshnegradsky and Witte

Answer 50

Vyshnegradsky 1887–92 – Prohibitive import tariff 30%, designed to boost domestic production. Considerably helped iron industry + development of industrial machinery – increased indirect taxes, drive to swell Green export at expense of peasants – no reserve stores for winter – 1881–91 grain exports increased 18% However no reserves + bad harvest brought famine 1891–92, dismissed Witte 1892–1903 – totally committed to economic modernisation, to curb revolution. – continue with tariffs and heavy taxation, forced exports – Increased foreign investment 1880 – 98 million rubles 1890– 215 million rubles 1895 - 280 million roubles – Investment went into mining, metals, oil, banking, expansion of railway network. Russia = 4th largest industrial economy by 1897.

Question 51

When were the land banks established?

Answer 51

Peasant – 1883 Nobles – 1885

Question 52

How many “middle class “in 1897 census?

Answer 52

No more than half 1 million

Question 53

What percentage of population did urban workers make up?

Answer 53

Around 2%