Primate Cognition, Communication and Culture Flashcards

Question

Give an example of primates using landmarks

Answer 1

In two species of lemurs, individuals travel from one food patch to the next neighbouring food patch, which most likely are visible from the first location. Second, they travel in straight lines and show a lot of backtracking, where they use the same routes on the way back. In these species, their traveling patterns suggest a landmarks usage, but they may actually have a Euclidian map which usage is limited due to the paucity of substrates and traveling limitations due to the topography

Answer 2

fruits = - dispersed - seasonal leaves= - evenly distributed - not seasonal Consequently, these food types pose different ecological and cognitive challenges, where searching and finding fruits is much more challenging than searching and finding leaves. A main consequence of this differential is that frugivore species have larger brains than folivore species

Answer 3

There is plenty of evidence that primate brains can be predicted by their diet, with frugivore having larger brains than omnivores, which have larger brains than folivores habitat generalists outperform habitat specialists in cognitive tasks

Answer 4

Generalists include species that can thrive in many different types of habitats, while specialists are constrained by living in specific environments and habitats

Answer 5

what seems to matter is the habitat rather than the diet because ecological specialization with regard to habitat, not to diet, explain observed cognitive differences.

Answer 6

- Primate brain size predicted by diet: frugivore > omnivore > folivore (DeCasien et al., 2017) - Habitat generalists outperform habitat specialists → BUT ecological specialization with regard to habitat, not to diet, explain observed cognitive differences Henke von den Malsburg et al., 2020

Answer 7

the extractive foraging hypothesis

Answer 8

proposed to explain the higher cognitive abilities of great apes and is also proposed for high cognitive abilities of humans. Here, the main idea is that high cognitive abilities of great apes are adaptations for exploiting a variety of high-energy embedded foods through intelligent tool use and its social transmission

Answer 9

no | also used to explain high cognitive abilities in some species of birds, like crows and parrots.

Answer 10

in great apes, embedded food is seasonal, and apes learn to use tools to dip, fish, excavate, open and remove food stuff which are embedded, such as termites, ants, honey and nuts. While in great apes, reliance on tools is only seasonal, as can be tool use to crack nuts, in human evolution, it is hypothesized that the reliance on tools became more and more important all year-round, making the usage of tools indispensable in foraging strategies

Answer 11

using tools to access to food and to feed makes that feeding requires complexity in food processing and so this complexity requires social transmission of techniques also, the hypothesis proposes that technological prowess and dexterity require advanced cognition, for the motor control to manipulate objects and for the understanding of sequences of actions.

Answer 12

Species in which a precision grip exists show tool use in feeding, and those of which brain size has been measured show a developed parietal area in their neocortex which is the area that enables this precision in tool manipulation using g as a measure, it appears not only apes appear cleverer than the rest, but also a few other species like macaques, capuchins and baboons, who also show tool use in the wild and in captivity. Parker, 2015

Answer 13

object permanence all primates have some understanding that things continue to exist out of sight and species that do more extractive foraging have better object permanence

Answer 14

All primates that use tools show that they select tools according to functional properties and that they manufacture tools to make it functional for the task, suggesting that they understand the causality behind its usage.

Answer 15

wild chimpanzees select nut-cracking tools according to multiple physical properties (weight, hardness, size, density); their selection of weight depends on other tools properties and on context; adjustment of selection to forthcoming transport reflects a planning of future actions

Answer 16

in chimpanzees with the number of transports of nutcracking tools as function of the distance of transport, for stones on the top and for wooden hammer on the bottom. Stones are transported over longer distances than wood, because stones are easier to transport due to their size, despite a heavier weight. Walking around with a stick in the dense forest is not easy, as compared to carrying a stone in the hand. So, they clearly plan which tool to pick depending on where they will use it. Similarly, the probability to choose a tool as function of its weight shows that when the anvil is in a tree, lighter hammers are picked; when the anvil is on the ground, heavier hammers are picked and used. Sirianni et al., 2015

Answer 17

Individualized relationships organized in a network Various relationship attributes: dominance, bond, kinship… Keep track of own and others’ interactions → advanced cognition needed for cooperation, competition and social strategizing

Answer 18

life in group increases complexity due to this high social complexity of primate groups, the social intelligence corresponds to the comprehension of identity, kinship, and relative rank, and this intelligence is expressed by showing flexible behaviour according to who does what and who does what with who.

Answer 19

dominance hierarchies, with the notion of relative rank, where individuals have to understand the rank of oneself, but also the rank of others and of their relatives triadic interactions, which involve more than two individuals such as in coalitions, re-directed aggressions, third-party affiliations and third-party relationships. fission-fusion

Answer 20

layback experiments have shown that baboons recognize that a dominance hierarchy can be sub-divided into family groups. After an aggression between two females, researchers emitted call sequences mimicking dominance rank reversals between families and within families duration of looking toward the speaker is longer when dominance is reversed as compared to not reversed, showing the surprise effect and interest of the baboon. this duration is longer and different when reversal occurs between families than within families as reversal of rank within families is common (so not so surprising), while between families it rarely occurs - understand membership in higher order groups, eg families or caste

Answer 21

it decouples rank and power strategizing individuals must base their decisions not only on observable clues (e.g., large body size or the rank of a single individual) but also on differentiated relationships due to number of coalition partners

Answer 22

coalitions are thought to be intimately linked with grooming, since grooming reinforces social bonds needed for coalitions. Consequently, individuals have to monitor not only their own relationships but also the relationships, in particular grooming, of other individuals.

Answer 23

where an aggressed individual will tend to re-direct this aggression toward a family member of the aggressor, showing they understand kin relationships of others.

Answer 24

n third-party reconciliation, where a kin individual of the aggressor reconciliates with the one aggressed on behalf of the aggressor. Wittig et al., 2007, using playback experiments, baboons that just got threatened respond more strongly to peaceful grunt emitted by kin members of the aggressors than to control vocalizations, and they increased their proximity postconflict after hearing peaceful grunts from kin members.

Answer 25

Third-party relationships such as recruitment of coalition partners male bonnet macaques use information about third-party rank relationships when they recruit support from other males. Males consistently chose allies that outranked themselves and their opponents and made such choices considerably more often than would be expected by chance alone. High-ranking males received more solicitations for support in coalitions than lower-ranking males

Answer 26

variable sub-grouping that change over time and space hard to keep tracks of who hangs out with who and who does what with who. Fission-fusion introduces uncertainty in the relationships.

Answer 27

promotes inhibitory control. Inhibition, such as waiting before getting a reward, is thought to be a high cognitive ability, since inhibition is the suppression of prepotent but ineffective responses in a changing social environment

Answer 28

A comparative analysis of inhibitory control of primates shows that fission-fusion species show higher inhibitory control than non fission-fusion species. Amici et al., 2013

Answer 29

Neocortex: seat of cognitive process such as reasoning and consciousness When the size of the neocortex is related to the rest of the brain, apes have a higher neocortex than old world monkeys, themselves bigger than new world monkeys, themselves bigger than prosimians. N

Answer 30

neocortex is not related to percentage of fruits in the diet neocortex is not related to home-range size

Answer 31

neocortex size is not related with extractive foraging neocortex is strongly related with group size, a proxy for social complexity, making the argument that high social complexity, due to high group size, is positively associated with high cognitive abilities, due to large brain sizes in larger groups.

Answer 32

the size of grooming cliques, which is the number of social partners used during grooming sessions, and the size of grooming networks, which the number of links between partners Neocortex relative size is larger in species with larger grooming cliques; grooming networks are larger for larger groups, and larger grooming cliques are found in species with larger grooming networks. This relationships between brain size and grooming networks means that when more individuals are involved in social relationships, keeping tracks of these relationships require advanced cognitive skills, pushing for an evolutionary increase of brain size.

Answer 33

Deaner et al., 2007 found that Cognitive abilities better predicted by overall brain size than by neocortex size

Answer 34

eg sooty mangabeys - higher-ranking individuals are more likely to stay near two other groomers than low-ranking ones - higher-ranking contestants in conflicts are more likely to get support than low-ranking and high-ranking individuals are more solicited for support than low-ranking ones These behaviours seem complex, because they involve more than two partners and because they imply understanding of relative rank relationships However, these results also can be explained by simple rules such as “intervene only when you outrank the target”, “always intervene on behalf of the aggressor”, “always support the high-rank”, all simple rules of thumb which would imply only understanding of own rank as compared to another individual, rather than processing third-party relationships and related ranks.

Answer 35

intelligence in insects, where very few neurons allow them to complete relatively complex tasks

Answer 36

big brains, neurons are larger due to physiological constraints, but also that in large brains neuronal circuits are replicated, allowing a better precision, a better perception and a better storage capacity

Answer 37

include computational thought and ToM

Answer 38

in addition to social complexity, intense social competition leads to the development of Machiavellian social strategies to achieve higher social status and fitness, and that this Machiavellian intelligence acts through using manipulation and deception. These abilities, to manipulate and deceive, require mental representations only seen in apes and humans.

Answer 39

the ability to understand others mental states and intentions, but also self-awareness

Answer 40

mirror experiments We put a mark on the face of a primate, and in front of a mirror we see if those individual notices the mark. If they do, they are aware that what they see is themselves, if they don’t, we conclude they are not self-aware Apes: yes Monkeys: no

Answer 41

Macaques understand what others are seeing since macaques follow the gaze of others, and this ability is shared by many other animals such as capuchins in primates, but also goats and dogs.

Answer 42

self-awareness and representation, comprehension of other’s knowledge, comprehension of false beliefs deception

Answer 43

Cultural intelligence hypothesis

Answer 44

social learning is more efficient than individual exploration, which should lead to learning of skills much faster with social learning than without. Also, an individual’s repertoire of learned skills is boosted by frequent social learning opportunities. Species with frequent opportunities for social learning can afford to increase cognitive power, which in consequence should lead to more heavily cultural species being more intelligent

Answer 45

the skills learned through social learning from the population’s pool of learned skills, and the skills acquired through innovation from its own asocial (individual)-learning ability (what one learns alone) when cultural feedback is added, selection on an increased set of learned skills is achieved by improved social learning. Owing to the high cognitive overlap, social learning improves the asocial (individual)-learning ability (i.e. intelligence). More learned skills also improve the latter through stronger experience effects

Answer 46

In the wild, Sumatran orang-utans are more social than Bornean orang-utans

Answer 47

Various cognitive skills have been measured, such as innate problem solving, inhibition and exploration style. Sumatran sociable orang-utan show a superior problem-solving ability than less sociable Bornean orang-utans, inhibition is stronger in the more sociable species, and Sumatran orang-utans exploration style is more cautious, while Bornean orang-utans are more rough in their exploration style. Here, it was concluded that there was a stronger selection on cognitive mechanisms underlaying learning in themore social species, confirming predictions from the cultural intelligence hypothesis

Answer 48

there had been coevolution of social, ecological and technical skills in primates, including cultural elements.

Answer 49

. Social learning is a particularly efficient mechanism of ontogenetic canalization (channelling during development), particularly in large-brained animals

Answer 50

``` Olfactory communication Tactile communication Vocal communication Visual communication Multi-modal communication ```

Answer 51

a 1) sender emits a 2)signal which is aimed toward a 3) receiver

Answer 52

messages that help coordinating behaviour in the interest of both sender and receiver

Answer 53

dominance status, phenotypic quality, reproductive status, group-coordination such as contact calls, and anti-predation such as alarm calls

Answer 54

signals motivation meaning function

Answer 55

the internal state of the actor sending the signal, such as fear, aggression, sexual interest, appeasement

Answer 56

he adaptive advantage of communication, such as: kin recognition, predator detection, competitor avoidance, friendship formation, mate attraction, etc...

Answer 57

signals which are not costly cannot evolve

Answer 58

non-costly signals are hard to decipher and to predict, their outcome is uncertain rendering difficult to be selected; costly signals (honest or deceptive) convey a selectable function, such as attracting mates or surviving from predators)

Answer 59

honest: Sender and receiver have common interests incompletely honest: Sender and receiver have conflictual interests but share some common ground interests Deceptive: Sender and receiver have conflictual interests → Receiver of deceptive signal must incur a cost Carazo & Font, 2014

Answer 60

Salticid spider: males of a given species deceive females of another species by mimicking courtship tactile signals → attract these decieved females → catch and eat them

Answer 61

Most of deceptive signals are found in predator-prey interactions where deception is stable because the frequency of dishonest signals is low, so it can evolutionary be maintained because it is hard to be detected and to be counteracted by counterstrategies, due to its low frequency.

Answer 62

constraints on false | signalling. These constraints include recognition, habituation, and punishment

Answer 63

regular interactions and individual recognition limit the use of deceptive tactics and false signalling

Answer 64

individuals rapidly learn to ignore false signals, progressively diminishing the effectiveness of deception; other constraint

Answer 65

detailed knowledge about social environment facilitates detection of dishonest individuals. If punishment follows detection, it reduces and negates benefits of acting deceptively.

Answer 66

subtle deceptive behaviour such as social tools and concealment of information are more difficult to detect so they can evolve

Answer 67

Social tools consist of deceiving an individual, using that individual as a tool: for example, in baboons, it has been observed that a juvenile screamed at an older individual who was in possession of a valued food item. Such screams are normally only uttered by an individual when attacked or threatened. As a result of the scream, the youngster’s mother chased off her son’s ‘assailant’, while the youngster was left to take the relinquished food.

Answer 68

in males, ornaments and colour display, such as the lip uncovering behaviour and red chest triangle in male gelada baboons, or the muzzle colour patterns in drill monkeys, or the colour patterns of some langurs, or the red lips of male sub-nosed monkeys. In these cases, visual display and colour ornaments indicate male quality, resource holding potential and dominance status of these individuals.

Answer 69

in orang-utans, Boris, the dominant male in this population, shows higher loud call rates than subordinates males, in the middle and on the left. Orang-utan’s loud calls are assumed to constitute honest signals of body male quality (mainly body size). Fitch & Hauser, 1995

Answer 70

chest beats larger males have a lower peak frequency of chest beat, meaning that larger males produce louder and deeper sounds when beating up their chest than smaller males. In this case, it suggests that chest beats are honest signals of body male competitive ability Wright et al., 2021

Answer 71

copulation calls Females produce copulation calls during the copulatory act, but they also sometimes continue after the copulation in many primate species Copulation calls can be grunts as in baboons or screams as in chimpanzees.

Answer 72

→ Honest signals to advertise reproductive status (Aich et al., 1990) → Encourage mate guarding by the consort male (Maestripieri & Roney, 2005) there are >15 eg nonadaptive by-product of sexual intercourse, the self-stimulation of the occurrence of ovulation, the promotion of synchronization of male and female orgasm, strengthening the pair bond

Answer 73

→ Minimize sperm competition → post-copulatory sexual selection → Consistent with honest signals of fertility → Explains post-copulatory calls

Answer 74

in lemurs, where female dominate the males, females use scent marking. These species are seasonal breeders, so there is a strong female-female sexual competition during this period. individual heterozygosity correlates positively with diversity of olfactory compounds ince the odour-genes relationship predicts health and survival during breeding season, it is suggested that scent marking acts as honest olfactory ornaments of genetic quality. Think of sweaty t-shirt study in humans (Wedekind, 1995)

Answer 75

multi-male multi-female social systems All multimale social systems correspond to species where exaggerated sexual swellings are displayed (Nunn, 1999)

Answer 76

patterns that bias paternity, such as ovulation taking place close to the peak of swelling, and dominant males’ reproductive success However, swellings are also associated with patterns that confuse paternity, such as errors in timing of ovulation

Answer 77

Best-male hypothesis - Clutton-Brock & Harvey, 1976 Reliable-quality indicator hypothesis (Pagel, 1994) Obvious-ovulation hypothesis (Hamilton, 1984) Many-service hypothesis (Van Noordwijk, 1985) Many-male hypothesis (Hrdy, 1981; Hrdy & Whiten, 1987) Graded signal

Answer 78

swellings serve to incite male-male competition, enabling females to identify and mate with best phenotype males. Here, there is indirect mate choice by the females, and paternity certainty is increased

Answer 79

not compatible with patterns of paternity confusion, not compatible with non-matching of ovulation with peak of swellings, not compatible with low-rank males siring, does not explain gradual increase and decrease in size; male-male competition does not require females to expose their fertility; weak support

Answer 80

swellings reliably indicate female quality and so swellings evolve under the selective pressure of female-female sexual competition

Answer 81

not compatible with largest swellings in least fertile females like adolescents, not compatible with male-biased sex-ratio in multi-male multi-female groups, where female-female competition is the lowest; predicts larger swellings when breeding is seasonal but opposite is true (largest in non-seasonal species).

Answer 82

swellings indicate the timing of ovulation, hereby increasing paternity certainty and thought to be an incentive for paternal care incompatible with patterns that confuse paternity (synchrony of swellings and lowranking males siring), and male care not observed apart from possible infant protection.

Answer 83

swellings help in promoting mate-guarding and courtship and where females select the best male for protection against other males, predators and neighbouring groups. In this case, paternity certainty is increased.

Answer 84

compatible with unprecise signals of fertility (since what matters are other benefits than giving paternity to a particular male), compatible with unprecise timing of ovulation around the peak, as it tends to increase length of male protection and consortship, but it is not compatible with low-ranking males siring offspring

Answer 85

swellings serve to attract many males as mating partners. Here, there is confusion of paternity, reduction of risks of infanticide, and even involves female cryptic choice (differential selection of gametes)

Answer 86

not compatible with patterns that increase paternity, cannot explain why ancestry small signal would become exaggerated and why a large signal is needed. In fact, a large signal is not always needed as, in some multi-male primates, mating are incited even without swellings like in patas monkeys, vervets and red-tailed monkeys; also, confusion of paternity can be done by concealing ovulation or by not matching ovulation with maximum swelling peak

Answer 87

exaggerated sexual swellings are indicators of the probability of ovulation, but not of its certainty Nunn, 1999

Answer 88

compatible with both paternity certainty and confusion, and it explains the exaggerated aspect, since a gradual signal requires a period of growth and a period of decrease. In this case, dominant males mate-guard close to the peak and females mate with subordinate males outside of the peak, explaining both dominant male reproductive skew but also why subordinate males can sire offspring. Since it is just a probability, dominant males have more chances to sire than subordinates, but subordinates still have a chance to sire

Answer 89

baboons, where swelling size is associated with the probability of ovulation Most of swellings measurements correlate with female fitness-related variables (Domb & Pagel, 2001) no eg : In chimpanzees the graded-signal seems to apply.

Answer 90

Swelling size increases as the ovulation approaches, but swellings remain large even after ovulation. male’s copulations concentrate around the period of maximum swellings. even within the traditionally defined maximum swelling period, further slight increases in swelling size indicate approaching ovulation, and male mating interest changes according to the changes in swelling size. absolute swelling size during the periovulatory period increases and the alpha male associates more with females as the number of cycles to conception decreases. when having the choice between several ‘‘maximally’’ tumescent females, the alpha male prefers the female that is in the fertile phase of her cycle rather than those with the biggest swelling at that time.

Answer 91

probability of ovulation and swelling size are correlated. However, although ovulation is virtually restricted to the second half of the period of maximum tumescence, its timing varies considerably in relation to both the onset and the end of the maximum tumescence phase. Probability of ovulation, however, is not random, but peaked on day 7 after the onset of the maximum swelling phase and is almost 60% between days 7 and 9. Thus, in wild chimpanzees, perineal swelling indicates the probability of ovulation, but does not provide sufficient information to deduce its exact timing

Answer 92

true Barelli et al., 2007 found the probability of ovulation peaked on day 3 of the maximum swelling period. Nevertheless, the temporal relationship between maximum swelling and probability of ovulation varied from day − 1 to day 13 of the swelling period and three times ovulations fell outside the maximum swelling phase.

Answer 93

swellings are a very unreliable signal of female probability of ovulation

Answer 94

duration of cycle is extremely variable and the ovulation does not coincide with the peak of swellings The suggested function of swellings in bonobos is that they serve in decreasing mate-guarding due to their variable length where males have to move from one female to the next without having a clue of their ovulation, they decrease paternity certainty and increase female choice. Douglas et al., 2016

Answer 95

Prosimians Indicate dominance status, genetic quality (s also common in new -world monkeys, particularly in Callitrichids, but for different function?)

Answer 96

scent marking was used in territoriality regulation of social and reproductive dominance scent marking acts in mating competition and intersexual mate choice.

Answer 97

there is not difference in scent marking behaviour between the centre of the territory and the periphery so it seems that scent marking does not act in territoriality.

Answer 98

Several elements do go in this direction, such as dominant individuals tend to scent mark more than subordinates, and in some species, reproductive suppression of subordinates via scent marking occurs. However, across species and populations, evidence remain scanty

Answer 99

t subordinates increase their scent marking during intergroup encounters (individual advertisement of quality – mate attraction), but also that increased scent marking during intergroup encounters by dominant is observed (deter females immigrants – intrasexual competition). Also, species where paternal care is superior to maternal care, female scent mark more than males (intersexual competition – females tend to attract the best father).

Answer 100

→ reconciliation → consolation → bonding → mother-infant interactions (bonding, protection, maternal care) Touching other‘s (shoulder, loins, root of tail, testes) → reassurance → bonding reinforcement - Embracing, lip contact, greetings ceremonies → reassurance → bonding reinforcement

Answer 101

ubiquitous

Answer 102

- Emotional expression (screams) - Dominance status (grunt – baboons, chimpanzees) - Individual identity (pant hoots – chimpanzees) - Territorial advertisment (loud calls– howler monkeys, orang-utans, gibbons) - Sexual advertisment (copulation calls) - Social bonding (coordinated chorus– chimpanzees, gibbons) - Functional reference (alarm calls)

Answer 103

each type of alarm call acts like words This referential communication is thought to be a precursor for language evolution. eg in vervet monkeys, for three different predators, a leopard, an eagle or a snake, a different alarm call is emitted. In addition, behavioural responses to each of these calls differ: for an eagle, individuals hide in a bush; for a leopard, they climb a tree; and for a snake, they stand up.

Answer 104

Zuberbuhler, 2000 Spectrogram of male alarm calls for a leopard, and spectrogram for an eagle (bottom). They clearly differ and show a different call structure for different predators. In addition, calling rates differ depending on the distance of the predator (illustrative figure) and differ depending on the location of the predator (bottom of the figure). Not only these primates have different words for different predators, but they also can convey a whole series of complementary information about the location of the predator.

Answer 105

In primates, facial expressions display a high flexibility and mostly express emotions. In primates, the position of the lips, the orientation of the eyebrows and the mouth are particularly important.

Answer 106

in Barbary macaques, different facial expressions correspond to various emotional states, such as aggressivity, with open mouth and showing teeth, or threat with open mouth and teeth covered and wide-open eyes, or distress with yawning and canine display, or submission, showing teeth and grinning but with closed mouth, or friendly and neutral expressions

Answer 107

facial colouration use patterns of colours on the face to recognize each species an experiment, involving machine learning, revealed that facial traits are critical for accurate classification and facial traits influence selective attention toward conspecific and heterospecific faces. Also, guenon species show a high variability in reliance on single-trait or whole facial characteristics

Answer 108

more flexible

Answer 109

in humans, gestures appear in infants before spoken language, which gives insights on gestures being also precursors of human language.

Answer 110

flexible For example, a chimpanzee claims some food by stretching his arm, and a bonobo displays a sexual invitation by lifting his arms. In chimpanzees and bonobos, facial, vocal and gestures are emitted on a regular basis, but gestures are less tied to contexts than vocalizations and facial expressions: the correlation across contexts for gestures is much lower than for vocal and facial signals, showing this high flexibility in gesture usage

Answer 111

in orang-utans, about 40 gestures have been observed, used in various contexts and used to achieve 6 social goals: to initiate an affiliative interaction (contact, grooming, or play), to request objects, to share objects, to instigate co-locomotion, to cause the partner to move back, or to stop an action. Intentionality here is shown since, when actions of the recipient did not match gestures‘ meaning, gestures were repeated over and over and even changed until the goal was reached. Also, orang-utans modify their gestural signalling according to their audience comprehension. Cartmill & Byrne, 2010

Answer 112

Orangutans’ (from both Sumatra and Borneo) behaviour varied according to how well they had apparently been understood. When their aims were not met, they persisted in communicative attempts. However, when the interlocutor appeared partially to understand their meaning, orangutans narrowed down their range of signals, focusing on gestures already used and repeating them frequently. In contrast, when completely misunderstood, orangutans elaborated their range of gestures, avoiding repetition of failed signals Cartmill & Byrne, 2007

Answer 113

In juvenile wild chimpanzees, play solicitation gestures were studied, and researchers found that audible and visual gestures increased with infant age, and that tactile gestures differed between the sexes, also that audible and visual gestures were higher in interactions with conspecifics than with mothers, and finally that object-associated and self-handicapping gestures were frequently used to initiate play with same aged and younger play partners, respectively. So, gestures in young chimpanzees are quite diverse, vary over time and are used differently by males and females and depending on the audience. Here gain showing a high flexibility. Froehlich et al, 2016

Answer 114

combination of vocalization, gestures and facial expressions

Answer 115

content-based efficacy-based inter-signal interaction

Answer 116

addresses the factors affecting the message or information of the signal (the „why“ of signal) and in which we can find redundancy where different components of multi-modal signal convey the same information or complementarity where different information is conveyed in each channel

Answer 117

addresses how effectively a signal is received and processed (the „how“ of signal) and in which each signal component acts as a backup to the other in presence of environmental noise. Here, multi-modal communication is based on imperfect information coding from the recipient, and it increases the probability of a receiver response across a variety of environmental conditions

Answer 118

where several signals are used as refinement of information, for disambiguation of a situation.

Answer 119

wild chimps do use combinations of Gestures + vocalizations wild chimpanzees, after perceived goals were not achieved, switched to gesture–vocalization combinations only if the initially single signals were vocal. gesture and vocalization in these cases conveyed partly different information, with gesture serving to resolve ambiguity in signal meaning. This also supports the hypothesis that many signal combinations in great apes are non-redundant, but also non-complementary.

Answer 120

behavioural practice that is shared among members of a group; is performed repeatedly over a period of time (that is, it is enduring); and depends to a measurable degree on social contributions to individual learning for its appearance in new practitioners Fragazy, 2003 shared patterns of behaviours and interactions, cognitive constructs and understanding that are learned by socialization. Thus, it can be seen as the growth of a group identity fostered by social patterns unique to the group.

Answer 121

common behaviour among group members social transmission

Answer 122

traditions are cultural traits

Answer 123

Behaviours that are practiced habitually in a group, rely in maintenance and transmission on social learning “the way to do things” McGrew, 2004

Answer 124

all group-typical behaviour patterns, shared by members of animal communities, are to some degree reliant on socially learned and transmitted information

Answer 125

When we hear about animal cultures, we often associate them with technology, such as tool use Chimpanzee nut cracking, stick tools in birds or macaques opening shells with stones are straightforward elements that can classified as cultural elements, since they require learning and social transmission

Answer 126

Social-sexual→ greetings, gestures… Communication→ Associative vocalisations, dialects… Feeding → Feeding preferences, hunting techniques

Answer 127

Method of exclusion comparing neighbouring groups or communities within the same field site socially learned skills counting 3 factor model

Answer 128

consists of comparing field sites, listing all the observed behaviours. We then exclude all behaviours of which the presence or absence in given places can be explained by genetic differences, and we exclude those of which the presence or absence in given places can be explained by ecological differences, and we also exclude behaviours that are found everywhere. In brief, when a behaviour is done everywhere, it doesn’t not correspond to a cultural trait, and when a behaviour presence somewhere but absent somewhere else cannot be explained by genetics or ecology, these traits are considered as cultural.

Answer 129

used to study wild chimps in 6 field sites and found 39 cultural traits, some of which were not tech based eg hand clasp

Answer 130

in the Gombe chimpanzees, an invitation to copulate by a male is done by clipping leaves, while this behaviour is done in the Taï chimpanzees before drumming. A copulation invitation in Taï is done by knocking the heel on the ground

Answer 131

24 cultural variants in areas such as social and feeding Cultural variation increases with geographic distance Size of cultural repertoire associated with opportunities for cultural learning social learning opportunities increase the number of cultural variants.

Answer 132

22 variants 57% in social domain 19% in food-related domain 24% in others domains

Answer 133

Within the same country, in Costa Rica, four populations have been compared. It was found that 20 food items were processed differently across sites Army ants are ants that make very long processions from nest site to nest site. One population of capuchins has been observed following the trail of the ants to find the nest and to feed on the larvae, while the other populations have not been observed doing this behaviour.

Answer 134

Ecological pressures drive adaptive behaviour which can also be cultural Genetics influence animal’s predisposition for social learning Animals modify their environment, also via culture (niche construction) Universal behaviour can also be cultural (e.g. nest-building) Distant populations: cannot rule out influence of genetic and ecology

Answer 135

s used to study chimpanzee cultural variants, particularly nut cracking behaviour in the Taï chimpanzees. Nut cracking is done by either using a stone hammer, or by using a wooden hammer - methods can be compared between the 3 groups here (North, South and East) East group uses continuously stone hammers throughout the season both South and North groups decrease over time using stones as hammers to crack nuts stone tool use habits vary between neighbouring communities, which then can be qualified as traditions.

Answer 136

the three groups increase the proportion of wooden hammer used across the season, but at very different rhythms different traditions

Answer 137

Luncz & Boesch, 2014, compared from 1983 to 1989 and from 2008 to 2013 Throughout the season, for both stones and wooden hammers, habits are conserved across time Traditions perpetuate through generations and remain

Answer 138

Conformity occurs when all members of the same group behave similarly and is characterized by the fact that newcomers follow the habits of their new group

Answer 139

Luncz & Boesch, 2014, recorded the tool use of a new female chimp over the first 55 weeks after her arrival new female increases progressively her stone tool use to eventually follow the same pattern than individuals of her new group. In other words, this new immigrant conforms to her new group’s tradition.

Answer 140

no Ant-dipping tool length varies widely across chimpanzee study sites, across type of army ants and across dipping locations in the Kalinzu forest

Answer 141

ant-dipping tool length varies within the same population between two neighbouring communities, here reflecting again a cultural variant within this population of chimpanzees.

Answer 142

→ Increase the general cultural repertoire → Modify distribution of variants across behavioural domains → Reveal ecological correlates for most of cultural elements culture is pervasive and widespread, and that culture drives local adaptations.

Answer 143

First, the number of cultural behaviours displayed by the sociable Sumatran orang-utans is higher than what is seen in Borneo. Second, when using the socially learned skills method, the number of cultural behaviours increases in both populations.

Answer 144

socially learned behaviours with a patchy geographic distribution but without ecological correlates (mostly conspicuous and/or high complexity behaviours such as tool use)

Answer 145

socially learned behaviours that vary between populations because they are influenced by a population's local ecology (e.g. feeding skills).

Answer 146

socially learned behaviours and knowledge that we find consistently across populations (e.g. basic subsistence and social skills). The sum of all socially learned behaviours represents an individual's cultural knowledge

Answer 147

the co-influence of environment, sociality and cognition on the emergence of cultural behaviours environmental opportunity, rather than necessity is the main driver of material culture.

Answer 148

In insectivores, ant dipping increases when more ants available and nut cracking increases when more nut trees available → Opportunity supported Ant dipping increases when more food available and nut cracking decreases when more food available (dry season: more food) → Necessity not supported

Answer 149

environment, sociality and cognition influence the propensity to invent and innovate, they influence the capacity to transmit information and innovation and the capacity to fixate a behavioural trait in the population. In addition, environment influence cognitive and sociality abilities

Answer 150

where individuals acquire information/skills without other‘s influence. This way to learn is often done by trial-error, which takes time.

Answer 151

influenced by the observation of, or interaction with, another individual or its products. It is a much faster process than asocial learning

Answer 152

simple imitation, where one copies the behaviour of the role model, without real inference on the goals; emulation, where one individual imitates the actions of a model in order to achieve the same goal; we also can learn from others by facilitation, where the level of effort is increased as a result of the presence of others; teaching can help in learning from others, where the model actively modifies the actions of the individual to improve its efficiency.

Answer 153

An innovation becomes cultural (tradition) when it gets fixated within a population To get fixated, transmission through social learning is required an innovation emerges, this innovation is copied by other individuals, and then transmitted to the next generation by social learning until all individuals in a population perform the same behaviour, where it then becomes a tradition.

Answer 154

horizontal vertical oblique

Answer 155

dental flossing in Japanese macaques group was too big, or the fact she had only two kin members in the group, or that she was lowranking, or even that this innovation is not very useful neither functional.

Answer 156

In a group of Japanese macaques, a spontaneous innovation emerged, performed by only one individual, who was using the fur of other individuals, or her own fur, to remove pieces of food between her teeth, as one would do when we floss our teeth. She used variable techniques (pictures). However, after years of practice, she remained the only individual in her large group to do this behaviour. The innovation did not spread in the group neither in the next generation.

Answer 157

sweet potatoes washing wheat placer mining

Answer 158

In 1953, only one individual innovated by washing sweet potatoes that villagers gave to this isolated population on a small island during the winter. Ino, this female macaque, started to wash the potatoes in the sea to remove the grains of sand. Another behaviour was innovated by the same individual: washing wheat. She separated the grains of wheat from the sand by throwing them into water, and she started doing that in 1956. In a few years, these behaviours were transmitted to her offspring and to the rest of the troop. Very good examples of vertical transmission and of a new culture emergence.

Answer 159

stone tool use is socially transmitted, and that using tools leads to the co-evolution of teaching and language in order to improve the efficiency of using, modifying and making tools. In other words, by developing language, individuals are better of explaining, and so teaching how to make tools, and also they are able to improve the efficiency of tool making.

Answer 160

experimental reconstructions of stone tool manufacture, using either imitation, or emulation (looking at result of tool making in presence of someone else without interaction), basic teaching (in presence of an experienced tool maker, where tutors could manually shape the pupil’s grasp of their hammerstone or core, slow their own actions and reorient themselves to allow the pupil a clear view - this condition replicates teaching reported in non-human primates), or gestural teaching where tutors and pupils could also interact using any gestures, but no vocalizations, or verbal teaching where tutors and pupils were also permitted to speak, it was shown that the best performance was obtained using active teaching through language All parameters associated with efficiency in stone tool manufacture where better when the actions were actively taught using language, as compared to simple imitation, emulation, basic teaching or gestural teaching.

Answer 161

the parietal cortex is involved in tool use, language and motor control PF area, the PGI area and the AIP area. Each of these areas strongly overlap in what they control, and they correlate with tool use, language, motor control, sensory system and executive function. Similarity of cognitive processes and cortical networks involved in speech and tool use

Answer 162

Darwin (1872) noted that when cutting something with a pair of scissors we often unconsciously clench and unclench our jaws, as if to sympathetically mimic the hand movements; in our scheme this would be an example of synkinaesia between the motor maps for the mouth and hand, which are right next to each other in the Penfield motor homunculus of the pre-central gyrus (Ramachandran, 2001)

Answer 163

In (a), the emergence of language produces the shift from the Oldowan to the Acheulean. In (b), technical reasoning skills are sufficient for the Acheulean because the combinatorial capacities are compensated by feedbacks occurring through the progression of the task. Later, these combinatorial capacities are internalized either by the emergence of language or by a kind of Baldwin effect (better fitness for great learners). In (c), the combinatorial capacities of the frontal lobe/Broca's area are initially not language-related but are used for other purposes (e.g., sensorimotor systems). These capacities are reused later in recycling first technical-reasoning skills and then language skills

Answer 164

``` → Cumulative culture (we gradually improve techniques) → Ratchet effect (we build on what our predecessors have invented Innovations jump from one mind to the next, throughout the population) → Active teaching ? (chimpanzees might) → Language (written and spoken) → Strong power of normativity ``` → Cultural and biological evolution (dual inheritence)

Answer 165

LCA (5-7My): wooden and stone tools, no modification Early Homo (2.5-0.2My): simple stone tools, modification Homo sapiens (0.2My): cumulative culture, elaborated modified tools (stone, wood, bones,…)

Answer 166

foraging niche breeding system tool use

Answer 167

new foraging niches, like scavenging, hunting and gathering allowed for more sociality. More sociality led to more opportunities for social learning, division of labour, which resulted in richer cultural repertoire and specialization in tasks.

Answer 168

a new breeding system with pair-bonding, provisioning of mothers and children increased the motivation to share information. This led to the development of active teaching, as seen in other animals where cooperative breeders show some teaching while individual breeders don’t. Eg, in meerkats, adults actively teach young pups pre-handling skills of preys. Cooperative breeding also involves share intentionality with other group members, and thus the emergence of language linked to teaching as we have seen earlier

Answer 169

more and more complex stone tools required better learning abilities and where the Baldwin effect took place, with individuals with better learning abilities had greater fitness and could expand culture. A feedback effect took place, with the dual inheritance where cultural niche construction (meaning the modification of environment to reduce selective pressures) accelerates in turn culture-gene coevolution

Answer 170

an organism's ability to learn new behaviours (e.g. to acclimatise to a new stressor) will affect its reproductive success and will therefore have an effect on the genetic makeup of its species through natural selection.

Answer 171

when several primate species are sympatric eg Lopé National Park, in Gabon which includes Western lowland gorillas, central chimpanzees, black colobus, grey-cheeked mangabeys, putty-nosed monkeys and many more which occupy different forest strata and have variable body size

Answer 172

niche partitioning

Answer 173

each species occupies different strata in the forest, their diet diverges from the others, and they vary also in body size, reducing the competition. For example, a species of spider monkeys lives high in the canopy and mostly eats leaves, while another species of spider monkeys, also living in the canopy, eats mostly fruits. Squirrel monkeys occupy the lower strata of the forest, as do capuchins, but squirrel monkeys mostly eat insects while capuchins are omnivores and have a diverse diet.

Answer 174

partition among terrestrial primates (chimps and gorillas) isotope sampling shows the different species eat different foods with a small overlap, where there will be competition (Oelze et al., 2014)

Answer 175

feeding competition results in a limited total biomass of primates, where each species is represented by a small number of groups and individuals. Niche partitioning allows primates to live among other species, but there is still a certain degree of competition, rendering these communities fragile when any change in the environment and the ecosystem occurs.

Answer 176

a small percentage of food items is eaten by all 8 species, but also about half of food items are eaten only by one species

Answer 177

habitat use anti-predation foraging efficiency

Answer 178

anti-predation - benefits from alarm calls and vigilance of others – primary driver of polyspecific associations

Answer 179

individuals occupy strata they wouldn’t occupy otherwise →eg Colobus going to the ground for geophagy during inter-specific associations

Answer 180

improves efficiency individuals/species on the ground feed on food dropped by other primates, profit of others’ knowledge on food location and food depletion

Answer 181

``` feeding competition interbreeding parasitism (if one doesnt benefit) ```

Answer 182

Diana monkeys and red colobus association Diana monkeys: primary alarm callers; were more exposed during associations (expected if risk of being caught by an eagle is reduced when in association) Red Colobus: use lower strata more often, more exposed to forest floor, look down less often when foraging, come down to feed on termite hills → Reduce predation pressure when in association also, predation benefits involve dilution and confusion effects when group size increases Bshary & Noë, 1997

Answer 183

redtail monkeys associating with blue monkeys both species reduce their vigilance behaviour when in association → Reduce predation pressure when in association

Answer 184

Goeldi’s tamarins tend to increase the use of middle and lower canopy when they associate with saddle back tamarins and with white lipped tamarins. This change of strata usage seems associated with a change in diet. In fact, saddle back and white lipped tamarins have a better knowledge of food locations than Goeldi’s monkeys, and those ones increase the amounts of fruits eaten during the wet season, when in association as compared to when alone

Answer 185

Goeldi’s monkeys, in association with with saddle back tamarins and with white lipped tamarins, increase their foraging efficiency, while no clear benefit is demonstrated for the other species. This example can illustrate a form of parasitism by Goeldi’s monkeys, even if costs for the two other species are not so clear

Answer 186

Foraging efficiency also occurs for three species of guenons associating with each other in the Lopé National Park: the crested mona monkeys, the moustached monkeys the putty-nosed monkeys When they associate, they shift habitats, occupying areas with richer supply of food species. This makes their foraging effort more efficient, and it results in a more diverse diet. They also show anti-predation benefits, as a division of labour gets organised, with moustached monkeys, who live lower in the canopy watch out and alarm call for terrestrial predators, while the two other species who occupy higher forest strata watch out and alarm for aerial predators

Answer 187

Diana monkeys increase slightly their quantity of arthropod preys in their diet, as compared to when they do not associate. Difference shown in the figure, even if statistically, in this study, the difference was not significant. Here, anti-predation remains the main benefits of association in this system.

Answer 188

In the Taï forest, Diana monkeys and red colobus associate often with sooty mangabeys, who are the most efficient sentinels for terrestrial predators, given that they also are terrestrial. Strata used by red colobus when associating with mangabeys as compared to when they are alone: when they hang out with mangabeys, red colobus go much lower than when they are alone. Same analysis for Diana monkeys reveals a similar pattern: Diana monkeys and red colobus descend to low forest levels and forest floor more often when in association with sooty mangabeys, which corresponds for them to a niche extension, which in turn provides foraging advantages, particularly for red colobus who can access to the ground and feed on termite hills. now we see that by changing habitat use they also gain some forms of feeding benefits

Answer 189

have evolved peculiar facial colouration patterns, enabling them to tease apart which species is which

Answer 190

Reciprocal evolutionary changes between pairs of species or groups as they interact with one another

Answer 191

our primate ancestors evolved key adaptations like forward-facing eyes, excellent colour vision, rounded, blunt teeth and fingers without claws, all for the purpose of eating and living from fruits As angiosperms began to evolve into tropical forests, they became bigger and bigger and so did their seeds. They needed large animals to spread these seeds...edible fruits developed as a means of attracting large animals for this dispersal... three types of animals co-evolved with these large tropical angiosperms: frugivorous bats, frugivorous birds, and primates. Sussman et al., 2012

Answer 192

forward-facing eyes and grasping hands evolved in primates to allow them to eat insects in trees Carmill, 1974

Answer 193

: first, primates have co-evolved with plants, in particular to detect ripe fruits through olfaction at first and through vision. Primates eat fruits with a fleshy pulp surrounding seeds. Primates disperse the seeds by handling the fruits, by ingesting them and defecating them at some distance from the parent tree, and in turn tree locations influence primate movements. After dispersal, the fate of the seeds depends on the location where they were dropped, since many seeds tend not to survive under the parent tree, or they need areas with more sunshine to grow, such as gaps created by fallen trees that primates like to use to rest and groom. The consequences are that the tree community structure is strongly determined by this dispersal, having consequences for the whole ecosystem.

Answer 194

seeds just under the parent tree are less likely to survive, due to high parasite load, than those deposited further away

Answer 195

Primates sleeping sites are important areas where seeds get deposited.

Answer 196

spit them out

Answer 197

cheek pouches where they can store fruits, so it means that they process these fruits as they move, therefore dispersing seeds further from the parent tree after eating the flesh.

Answer 198

swallowed They are then defecated much further form the parent tree. A lot of seeds need to go through the gut to be able to germinate. Germination is favoured by the nutrients present in the faecal matter

Answer 199

pecialized in eating colourful fruits, with a fleshy pulp surrounding small sized seeds that can easily be swallowed.

Answer 200

Gorillas and chimpanzees up to 125 species of trees Poulsen et al., 2001

Answer 201

60% of defecated seeds eaten by three species of new world monkeys germinated of which: 50% were removed by secondary seed dispersers or killed by seed predators

Answer 202

Seeds defecated by tamarins in Peru Secondary dispersal by dung beetles 35% of defecation visited by dung beetles of which 24% were buried by dung beetles burying improved chances of germination as compared to if they remain under the parent tree and remain on the ground floor

Answer 203

chimps: Defecate large seeds (>0.5cm) Discard wadges containing many seed → Defecated deposited farther from an adult conspecific chimpanzees → Lower persistence but better establishment Lhoest monkeys: Spit single seeds → Orally-discarded deposited closer from an adult conspecific → greatest persistence but poorest establishment

Answer 204

opportunistic predator | hunt on various species of antelopes, but also hares and birds

Answer 205

birds, eggs, lizards, frogs, young coatis, bats, rodents

Answer 206

macaques hunt on rats in palm oil plantations, contributing to a reduction of 10% of lost yield for the farmers and may constitute an interesting avenue of biological control over pesticides in this Malaysian palm oil plantations.

Answer 207

No | chimps plan predation with hunting tactics: cooperative action, shared goals and share intentionality

Answer 208

individuals distribute roles, with a driver chasing the monkey they want to capture, other individuals block ways to escape in the canopy; other individuals, on the way the monkey is using, chase the prey while other individuals wait at the end of the way to capture the prey - the ambushers. All these roles are perfectly understood by all individuals, and all participants will then share the food

Answer 209

some individuals are chasers, while other individuals are blocking the route. These patterns reveal strong abilities to understand the goals and intentions of others, as well as coordination and cooperation

Answer 210

most hunting events occur during the season when there is a lot of food, so not related to energetic needs (Mitani & Watts, 2001) hunting rates are higher when more individuals are present in the group and when more males are present in the party

Answer 211

More individuals mean more chances of success. meat is shared and used to reinforce alliances, bonds and friendships. Levels of oxytocin, related to social bonding - when no food sharing occurs, and when food sharing occurs, showing that sharing food increases this oxytocin level.

Answer 212

decrease in monkey population this happened with red colobus in Kibale National Park as the population of red colobus decreases, the chimpanzees have to travel further and further to encounter them, and potentially to hunt them. It seems, in this chimpanzee population, that hunting red colobus is done in an unsustainable way, resulting in local depletion of red colobus.

Answer 213

They can have macro-parasites, like external parasites such as ticks, but also a lot of internal ones like worms and bacteria. Primates are also hosting micro-parasites like viruses such as SIV, STL and Herpes primates are asymptomatic carriers, where they don’t actually develop symptoms and don’t get sick but they can transmit these viruses and parasites to other individuals and animals in their environment. However, primates are also vulnerable to a lot of diseases, such as Ebola or anthrax. They also can contract coronaviruses and even by leprosy.

Answer 214

First, one can see that parasites found in prosimians are less diverse than those found in the other primates, the apes having the highest parasite richness. Researchers have investigated what can explain this variation and body mass was proposed - larger primates having more parasites and a richer internal parasite diversity? BUT when phylogeny is controlled for, this relationship disappears, showing that body mass doesn’t explain parasite diversity and richness. Instead, it seems that the main factor explaining primate parasite diversity is population density In addition, geographic range seems to play a role, where a higher parasite diversity is found in primates with a larger geographic range. Location

Answer 215

eg , higher protozoan parasite diversity is found in primates from tropical areas (not for helminths and viruses) where protozoan species richness is higher near the tropics than in temperate latitude.

Answer 216

Each parasite species was scored according to four major transmission strategies, including close contact, on-close contact (faecal to oral or fomites), vector-borne (spread by biting arthropods), or via intermediate hosts (i.e., parasites with complex life cycles or trophic transmission), it was found that, in tropical areas, most of protozoans are transmitted by arthropods, who show a high diversity in these regions.

Answer 217

eg, in baboons, it was found that grooming networks predicted gut microbiome similarity, where individuals that groom frequently and maintained strong relationships via grooming had similar microbiome. In the same way, microbiome similarity was predicted by interactions between social groups in a population of black and white colobus in Ghana Microbiome similarity was predicted by sociality among sex-classes in a population of new-world monkeys, where microbiome was more dissimilar, so different, when individuals did not spent time in proximity or a lot of time together.

Answer 218

making nests, in particular nests in specific trees that present anti-fungi or mosquito repellent properties, but also grooming is very efficient in removing external parasites like ticks plants as self medication

Answer 219

tick loads decrease as the number of grooming bouts received increases, in baboons. Akinyi et al., 2013

Answer 220

leaf swallowing, particularly hairy leaves, which remove gastro-intestinal parasites. These leaves are for example species of Manniophyton, which leaves have a lot of little thick hair that act like hooks. Chimpanzees make a ball of these leaves and swallow them without chewing.

Answer 221

60% of primate species now are threatened and 75% of primate species have declining populations.

Answer 222

primates are important seed dispersers as we have seen today, and so if there are no primates, we end up with empty forests, which are impossible to regenerate and host other species, and eventually perish

Answer 223

by conserving and protecting primates, one can protect and conserve their entire ecosystem for example the presence of great apes in protected area increases the number of studies on other species, so by having great apes we get to know more about the entire ecosystem.

Answer 224

→ Primates are important seed dispersers → Primates are umbrella species → Primates tell us about our own evolutionary history

Answer 225

rare species are more likely to go extinct and specialist species are more likely to go extinct, but also species with large body mass are more likely to go extinct due to their slow reproduction and the fact that smaller species are better able to partition into space because money allocated for conservation is limited, one needs to clearly identify priorities, which is to concentrate on biodiversity hotspots hosting the majority of vulnerable animal and plant species

Answer 226

forests cover 31 percent of the global land area. Approximately half the forest area is relatively intact, and more than one-third is primary forest. More than half of the world’s forests are found in only five countries (the Russian Federation, Brazil, Canada, the USA and China)

Answer 227

15.3 billion trees are chopped down every year. 46% of the world's trees have been cleared over the past 12,000 years. Between 2015 and 2020, the rate of deforestation was estimated at 10 million hectares per year, down from 16 million hectares per year in the 1990s. The area of primary forest worldwide has decreased by over 80 million hectares since 1990. : Large-scale commercial agriculture accounts for 40 percent of tropical deforestation between 2000 and 2010, and local subsistence agriculture for another 33 percent.

Answer 228

s many tropical trees are high price timber, such as ebony, mahogany and teak. Trees are selectively logged, leaving disturbed forest and leading to soil erosion due to logging roads, which cut the forest into parts, bring more people around and more exploitation

Answer 229

Forests are burnt and transformed into cattle ranches

Answer 230

Rare minerals are extracted from tropical regions (e.g., coltan, gold). Local populations, particularly children, are exploited for extraction and these mines are creating huge soil erosion but also soil and water pollution

Answer 231

Exploitation of the world’s remaining tropical forests through overhunting is considered a major cause of biodiversity loss, in some cases more important than deforestation. The evidence is that exploitation of wild animals for food (bushmeat) by tropical forest dwellers has increased in recent years. This is due to growing human populations, greater access to undisturbed forests, changes in hunting technology, and scarcity of alternative protein sources. Pet trade encourages poaching and wildlife extraction

Answer 232

→ Associated with logging roads and agriculture → Increase proximity with wildlife → Increase risks of zoonoses → Associated with decrease of ape behavioural diversity (loss of local animal cultures)

Answer 233

Conservation with local people - Identify local needs - Work together for sustainable livelihoods and improved healthcare - Education programs and capacity building - Report outcomes of projects, successes and failures

Answer 234

tactical deception is seen in capuchins who have been shown to give false alarm calls (Wheeler, 2009)

Answer 235

cortico-motoneuronal connections (direct, monosynaptic connections with motoneurons, bypassing the spinal interneurons.) - projections to motorneurons appear in species that make independent finger movements (in primates) but are not seen in species without. - Lesions of the corticospinal tract in the medulla leave permanent deficits that are most extreme in finger movement and manipulation. - in man the direct projections post-natally, appearing at about 9 months. At this age dexterity begins to develop.

Answer 236

long-term contingency is proximately regulated by a ‘relationship score’ computed through a tally of past interactions which tend to outweigh recent single events (Jaeggi et al., 2013)

Answer 237

redundancy hypothesis complementarity hypothesis

Answer 238

different components of multimodal signals convey the same information and are thus redundant multimodal signalling allows an increased accuracy of receiver response (Johnstone 1996) and provides insurance against imperfect sender coding

Answer 239

Cartmill and Byrne (2007): orangutans adopted cross-modal tactics to achieve communicative goals, by repeating signals if they are partially understood and substituting gesture types and sensory modalities if completely misunderstood. both simultaneously and sequentially redundant signalling might play a particular role in certain developmental stages in apes, as a mechanism in young individuals to increase signal efficacy (termed ‘repertoire tuning’ by Hobaiter and Byrne 2011). Thus, the large body of evidence derived from great apes living in captive and wild settings led Byrne et al. (2017) to conclude that the apes’ gestural repertoire is widely redundant

Answer 240

different infor-mation is conveyed in each channel (Fig. 1), resulting in an overall increase in information content each element plays a different functional role and thus complements the other(s) (Partan and Marler 2005).

Answer 241

mixed evidence for complementarity from non-primate species (reviewed in Hebets and Papaj 2005) human co-speech gestures can have independent communicative functions, Meaning is then derived through integrating the information conveyed in different channels gestures serve as a cognitive aid, providing signallers with a second representational format to reduce cognitive load and serve as a tool for thinking and learning (Goldin-Meadow 1999). Gesturing reduces demands on cognitive resources and frees capacity to perform other tasks (Goldin-Meadow and Wagner 2005). Thus, humans’ gestural and facial signals accompanying speech do not merely act to facilitate message detection and discrimination (i.e., redundancy), but rather increase the total amount of information available (Partan and Marler 1999).

Answer 242

captive bonobos (but not chimpanzees) have been shown to be more responsive to multimodal (i.e., gestures combined with facial/vocal signals) than unimodal communication despite its rare usage, which led the authors to conclude that bonobos attempt to add information content rather than merely increasing efficacy (Pollick and de Waal 2007)

Answer 243

Hebets and Papaj (2005): the ‘efficacy-backup hypothesis’, which states that each signal component acts as a backup to the other in the presence of environmental noise does not relate to constraints in sender coding but to signal degradation and attenuation during transmission

Answer 244

While the redundancy hypothesis assumes that additional signals increase the reliability of the message content, the efficacy-based backup hypothesis poses that additional signals increase the probability of a receiver response across a variety of environmental conditions

Answer 245

use of a multimodal courtship display in wolf spiders consisting of visual and seismic signals, allowed males to gain as many copulations during dark as compared to light conditions, as well as on vibration-transmitting compared to dampening substrate (Hebets and Papaj 2005). not yet systematically been tested in primates, probably due to the difficulty of designing the appropriately standardized experimental setups

Answer 246

‘Fixed’ multimodal signals are those whose components are obligatorily coupled due to the mechanics of signal production (e.g., a ‘scream face’ necessarily accompanies a ‘scream’ vocalization in chimpanzees). By contrast, ‘free’ multimodal signal combinations are those whose components may be produced separately or combined flexibly with other signals (e.g., in chimpanzees’ greeting interaction, a submissive ‘pant grunt’ vocalization is occasionally accompanied by an ‘embrace’ gesture).

Answer 247

the McGurk effect impressively demonstrates that our perception of auditory stimuli can be modified by visual stimuli

Answer 248

The ‘increased detection and discrimination’ hypothesis; Hebets and Papaj (2005) the presence of one signal either increases the probability and/or speed of detection of a second signal (increased detection), or increases the accuracy with which the receiver responds to a second signal (increased discrimination) The presence of one signal might thus provide a context in which a receiver can interpret and respond to a second signal.

Answer 249

male bonobos use the same vocalization (‘contest-hoot’) in playful and aggressive contexts but add gestures to distinguish between the two (Genty et al. 2014), thereby clarifying an ambiguous message sent in one channel by adding a more specific component in another channel. Thus, even in conditions of good visibility and plenty of social exposure (i.e., in captivity), signals of different sensory modalities are often combined into multimodal sequences or signal combinations

Answer 250

accompaniment of visual cues facilitates comprehension of auditory cues (Sumby and Pollack 1954). Moreover, studies have shown that tactile stimulation can increase the degree of visual cortex activity and visual discrimination in humans McGurk effect

Answer 251

marble hand illusion Senna (2014)

Primate Cognition, Communication and Culture Flashcards

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