Primer Material Section 1A-1H

Question 1

Which 2 enzymes occur in the mouth?

Pepsin
Protease
amylase
Lipase

Answer 1

Amylase and lipase

Question 2

In the stomach, which enzyme breaks down triacylglycerols into FFAs and Diacylglycerols?

Protease
Lipase
Amylase
Maltase

Answer 2

Lipase

Question 3

Pepsinogen is secreted by the chief cells in the stomach

True of False

Answer 3

True

chief cells of the stomach secrete lipase, which breaks down dietary triglycerides (triacylglycerols) into free fatty acids and diglycerides (diacylglycerols), and pepsinogen (the precursor of pepsin, which initiates the hydrolysis of food proteins).

Question 4

Which cells secrete lipase in the stomach?

Chief cells
Parietal cells
Mucous cells

Answer 4

Chief cells

the chief cells of the stomach secrete lipase, and pepsinogen

lipase, which breaks down dietary triglycerides (triacylglycerols) into free fatty acids and diglycerides (diacylglycerols)

pepsinogen (the precursor of pepsin, which initiates the hydrolysis of food proteins).

Gastrin acts on gastric parietal and chief cells to stimulate intragastric secretion of HCL and pepsinogen, respectively.

Question 5

Which cells secrete intrinsic factor and HCL?

Chief cells
Parietal cells
Mucous cells

Answer 5

Parietal Cells

the chief cells of the stomach secrete LIPASE, which breaks down dietary triglycerides (triacylglycerols) into free fatty acids and diglycerides (diacylglycerols), and PEPSINOGEN (the precursor of pepsin, which initiates the hydrolysis of food proteins). The

Question 6

Which cells secrete bicarb to protect the stomach lining?

Chief cells
Parietal cells
Mucous cells

Answer 6

Mucous cells

Question 7

Which hormone acts on the parietal and chief cells to stimulate the secretion of HCL and pepsinogen?

Leptin
Ghrelin
Gastrin
CCK

Answer 7

Gastrin

Question 8

Which sections of the small intestine are where the majority of nutrient absorption occurs?

Duodenum
Jejunum
Ileum
Duodenum and jejunum
Jejunum and ileum

Answer 8

Jejunum and ileum

Question 9

Acidic chyme in the proximal duodenum triggers the release of which hormone that is responsible for stimulating the secretion of bicarb into the duct system?

Ghrelin
Secretin
Gastrin
CCK

Answer 9

Secretin

Question 10

The presence of what in the proximal duodenum triggers the release of CCK ?

Carbs
Fats
Proteins
Fats and / or proteins
all of the above

Answer 10

fats and/ or proteins

Cholecystokinin is a peptide hormone of the gastrointestinal system responsible for stimulating the digestion of fat and protein

Question 11

Which stimulates the release of zymogens by the pancreas AND stimulates the gallbladder to contract and expel bile in the common bile duct?

CCK
Gastrin
Secretin
Ghrelin

Answer 11

CCK - Cholecystokinin

Concurrently, fat or protein entering the proximal duodenum stimulate duodenal secretion of cholecystokinin into the systemic circulation. Cholecystokinin stimulates pancreatic secretion of zymogens (inactive digestive enzyme precursors) into the ductal system and stimulates gall bladder contraction, propelling bile into the common bile duct.

Question 12

Which enzyme is required for the conversion of trypsinogen to trypsin?

Lipase
Enterokinase
Peptidase
Invertase

Answer 12

Enterokinase

Question 13

ALL the zymogens (inactive digestive enzyme precursors) secreted by the pancreas rely on trypsin for their conversion to active forms.

True or False

Answer 13

True! So without enterokinase activity, there’s no trypsin and no others can be activated

When pancreatic zymogens reach the small intestine, enterokinase
secreted by duodenal enterocytes converts trypsinogen to trypsin. The enterokinase enzyme
is absolutely required for trypsin activation. In turn, trypsin converts the other zymogens to
elastase, chymotrypsin, colipase, carboxypeptidase A and carboxypeptidase B.

Question 14

Trypsin, chymotrypsin, and elastase require which amino acid in their active sites?

Answer 14

Serine

Proline
Serine
Lysine
Histidine

Question 15

Which mineral do carboxypeptidases (secreted from the pancreas) require to function?

Magnesium
Zinc
Selenium
Copper

Answer 15

Zinc

Carboxypeptidases are zinc-requiring metalloenzyme exopeptidases that cleave single carboxyterminal amino acids from polypeptides.

Question 16

Which brush border enzymes complete the final stages of hydrolysis for carbs and proteins (includes oligosaccharidases, disaccharidaes, and peptidases)?

Endozymes
Ectozymes

Answer 16

Ectozymes

Associated with and attached to microvillar surfaces of the small intestine are ectozymes
(oligosaccharidases, disaccharidases and pepidases) produced by enterocytes. These brush
border enzymes complete the final steps in the hydrolysis of amylase-digested carbohydrates to
monosaccharides and of protease-digested proteins to absorbable free amino acids, dipeptides
and tripeptides.

Question 17

Gastric pepsin and lipase function optimally at which pH

3-4

5. 5-6.5
6. 75-7.00
7. 5-3.5

Answer 17

1.5-3.5

Question 18

Salivary amylase functions best at which pH

3-4

5. 5-6.5
6. 75-7.00
7. 5-3.5

Answer 18

6.75-7.00

Question 19

Which are collections of lipid soluble dietary subcomponents surrounded by a layer of water soluble bile salts?

Micelles
Chylomicrons
Liposomes

Answer 19

Micelles

Monoglycerides, free fatty acids, cholesterol, phospholipid digestion products and other fat- soluble food components cannot readily penetrate the unstirred water layer that separates the epithelial surface of the small intestine from the intestinal lumen. Their absorption depends on their ability to aggregate spontaneously with bile salts and become incorporated within vaguely spherical clusters of bile salts called micelles. Micelles are collections of lipid soluble dietary subcomponents surrounded by a layer of water soluble bile salts. The solubility characteristics of the bile salt layer allows ready penetration of the unstirred water layer by micelles; the complex breaks down upon reaching the brush border, allowing rapid diffusion of their lipid components down concentration gradients into enterocytes.

Question 20

Which are secreted into lacteals from the ER of the enterocytes and contain lipids and lipid soluble compounds and are protein-coated to make them water soluble?

Micelles
Chylomicrons
Liposomes

Answer 20

Chylomicrons

Within the endoplasmic reticulum of enterocytes, lipids and lipid soluble compounds are repackaged into large protein-coated (and therefore water soluble) chylomicrons that are secreted into the lacteals, flow through the lymphatic system and enter the circulation via the thoracic duct.

Dietary fats and cholesterol are presented to the circulation in the form of chylomicrons. Relatively short-lived, chylomicrons are dissembled in the liver and their components repackaged into a family of lipoproteins containing triacylglycerols (triglycerides), cholesterol esters, and phospholipids in varying ratios and loosely coated with solubilizing and receptor ligand proteins: very low density lipoproteins (VLDL), low density lipoproteins (LDL), intermediate density lipoproteins (IDL) (remnants of partially depleted VLDL), and high density lipoproteins (HDL).

Question 21

Which method of absorption uses water and electrolytes to cross tight junctions between adjacent enterocytes?

Passive diffusion
Facilitated diffusion
Filtration
Osmotic movement
Active transport

Answer 21

Osmotic movement

Question 22

Which method of absorption uses hydrostatic pressure to drive movement of solutes and water through a semipermeable membrane from a region of higher hydrostatic pressure to one of lower hydrostatic pressure?

Passive diffusion
Facilitated diffusion
Filtration
Osmotic movement
Active transport

Answer 22

Filtration

Question 23

Which method of absorption utilizes potential energy created by difference in nutrient concentration across a membrane from higher to lower concentrations?

Passive diffusion
Facilitated diffusion
Filtration
Osmotic movement
Active transport

Answer 23

Passive diffusion

Passive diffusion (simple diffusion) utilizes the potential energy created by a difference in nutrient concentration across a membrane to move nutrients from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. Lipid soluble compounds enter intestinal cells by passive diffusion from the brush border into the cell cytosol.

Question 24

Lipids and lipid soluble compounds enter intestinal cells by

Passive diffusion
Facilitated diffusion
Filtration
Osmotic movement
Active transport

Answer 24

Passive diffusion

Question 25

Which method of absorption is when the nutrient is attached to a lipid soluble membrane carrier protein that passes through the with nutrient and moves down the concentration gradient? ``` Passive diffusion Facilitated diffusion Filtration Osmotic movement Active transport ```

Answer 25

Facilitated diffusion (carrier-mediated transport) Most carbohydrates are transported across biological membranes via facilitated diffusion.

Question 26

Most CHOs are transported across the membrane via ``` Passive diffusion Facilitated diffusion Filtration Osmotic movement Active transport ```

Answer 26

Facilitated diffusion | carrier-mediated transport

Question 27

Carrier-mediated diffusion is another name for ``` Passive diffusion Facilitated diffusion Filtration Osmotic movement Active transport ```

Answer 27

Facilitated diffusion in facilitated diffusion the nutrient is attached to a lipid soluble membrane carrier protein that easily passes through membranes even with the attached nutrient. Most carbohydrates are transported across biological membranes via facilitated diffusion.

Question 28

Simple diffusion is another name for ``` Passive diffusion Facilitated diffusion Filtration Osmotic movement Active transport ```

Answer 28

Passive diffusion

Question 29

Which method of absorption moves a nutrient through mucosal cell membranes against a concentration gradient, requiring a receptor and the use of ATP? ``` Passive diffusion Facilitated diffusion Filtration Osmotic movement Active transport ```

Answer 29

Active transport

Question 30

Most amino acids and ions are absorbed by ``` Passive diffusion Facilitated diffusion Filtration Osmotic movement Active transport ```

Answer 30

Active transport

Question 31

Gut Associated Lymphoid Tissue (GALT) secretes which substance and comprises how much of the immune cells in the body? Secretory IgG, 30-40% Secretory IgA, 40-50% Secretory IgM, 50-60% Secretory IgA, 50-60%

Answer 31

Secretory IgA, 50-60%

Question 32

Which substances are possibly useful for determining intestinal permeability? Mannitol, Lactose Mannose, Lactulose Mannitol, Lactulose Mannose, Lactose

Answer 32

Mannitol (small, absorbable, and non-metabolized), Lactulose (large, normally not absorbed, non-metabolized)

Question 33

The highest tissue content of glutathione is in the human ___ and ______ _____.

Answer 33

gastric and duodenal epithelia.

Question 34

Which is the primary source of enterocyte fuel, supplies the substrates for polyamine and DNA production, and is the rate-limiting precursor for glutathione production? ``` Glutamine Cysteine Butyrate Glutamate Pyruvate ```

Answer 34

Glutamine

Question 35

When this amino acid is inadequate, apoptosis is accelerated and compensatory cellular proliferation is stunted in the gut. Glutamate Glycine Cysteine Glutamine

Answer 35

Glutamine

Question 36

What are the 3 types of fiber?

Answer 36

Soluble, insoluble, nonfermentable

Question 37

Beta glucans, gums, mucilages, pectins are types of which class of fiber? Soluble Insoluble Nonfermentable

Answer 37

Soluble

Question 38

Oat hulls, methylcellulose, and wood pulp are types of which class of fiber? Soluble Insoluble Nonfermentable

Answer 38

Nonfermentable

Question 39

Celluloses and lignans are which types of fiber? Soluble Insoluble Nonfermentable

Answer 39

Insoluble

Question 40

Hemicellulose is both soluble and insoluble. True or False

Answer 40

True

Question 41

In excess, which type of fiber can impair fat and fat-soluble vitamin absorption due to lipase inhibition? Soluble Insoluble Nonfermentable

Answer 41

soluble

Question 42

Which type of fiber increases bacterial mass of stool, decreases glucose absorption, and dilutes pathogens and toxins? Soluble Insoluble Nonfermentable

Answer 42

Nonfermentable These food components function in the human colon to increase the bacterial mass ofthe stool (by adhesion), decrease the absorption of glucose and increase the glucose content of stool (by interfering with carbohydrate digestion in the small intestine), dilute pathogens and toxins in digesta and stool, increase rate of passage (decreases colonocyte “toxin exposure time” by distending the colonic mucosa and stimulating peristaltic contractions), inhibit the inflammatory responses to bacterial infections (by “blocking” microbial access to the intestinal mucosa), and inhibit phagocytotic capacity of intestinal macrophages (possibly by interfering with macrophage-secreted oxidizing compounds).

Question 43

Lactobacilli, Streptococci, and yeast are most commonly found together in which part of GI system? Stomach and duodenum Jejunum and ileum Colon

Answer 43

Stomach and duodenum

Question 44

In addition to Lactobacili, Streptococci, Enterobacteriaceae, Bacteroides, Bifidobacteria, and Fusobacteria, which section of the GI tract also contains Pseudomonas, Clostridia, Proteus, and protozoa? Stomach and duodenum Jejunum and ileum Colon

Answer 44

Colon

Question 45

Lactobacilli, Enterobacteriaceae, Streptococci, Bacteroides, Bifidobacteria and Fusobacteria are predominantly found where in the GI tract? Stomach and duodenum Jejunum and ileum Colon

Answer 45

Jejunum and Ileum Small pH differences along the small intestine favor Lactobacilli, Enterobacteriaceae, Streptococci, Bacteroides, Bifidobacteria and Fusobacteria in the human jejunumand ileum.

Question 46

Which is the most common microorganism in the GI tract AND in breastmilk? Lactobacilli Bifidobacterium Proteus Bacteroidetes

Answer 46

Bifidobacterium accounts for roughly 50% of GI tract

Question 47

Which organism accounts for about 25% of GI tract bacteria and produces lactic acid and SCFAs? Lactobacilli Bifidobacterium Proteus Bacteroidetes

Answer 47

Lactobacilli

Question 48

Which organism is in small and large intestine? It antagonizes Candida, inhibits cholera toxin, inhibits amoeba adhesion, and is effective at treating rotoviral diarrhea? Lactobacilli Bifidobacterium Proteus Saccharomyces boulardii

Answer 48

Saccharomyces boulardii

Question 49

Which SCFA is metabolized by colonocytes into Acetyl CoA for energy and the is also useful for formation and maintenance of tight junctions? Acetate Proprionate Butyrate

Answer 49

Butyrate

Question 50

Breastfed infants have over 90% of this organism in their GI tract. Lactobacillus rhamnosus Bifidobacterium lactis Bifidobacterium infantis Saccharomyces boulardii

Answer 50

Bifido infantis

Question 51

Feeding infants formula _______ diversity/colonization, and ____ risk of gastroenteritis and sepsis. Decreases, decreases decreases, increases Increases, decreases Increases, increases

Answer 51

decreases, increases

Question 52

Low fiber results in an ____ of colonic pH and a _____ of butyrate availability. Decreases, decreases decreases, increases Increases, decreases Increases, increases

Answer 52

Increases, decreases

Question 53

When dietary sugars are not completely digested, hyperacidification occurs in the colon and there is an increase of which gas? SH2 NO CO2 SO2

Answer 53

SH2 Incomplete digestion of dietary sugars will increase the amount of fermentable nonfiber carbohydrate reaching the colon. Fermentation of sugars within the colon results in hyperacidification of intraluminal pH and an increase in microbial production of SH2. This gas readily enters colonocytes where it acts as an inhibitor of enzymatic conversion of butyrate to acetyl CoA. Intracolonocyte acetyl CoA deficiency produces “leaky tight junctions” with an increase in intestinal permeability, as well as increased risk for energy deficit in colonocytes. Intestinal gas is composed of various amounts of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, and methane ``` SH2 - Hydrogen sulfide CO2 - Carbon dioxide N2 - nitrogen H2 - hydrogen CH4 - methane ``` SO2 - Sulfur dioxide (burnt match smell) - NOT intestinal gas NO - NOT intestinal gas

Question 54

Which gas inhibits the conversion of butyrate into acetyl CoA and increases risk for colorectal cancer and leaky tight junctions as a result? SH2 NO CO2 SO2

Answer 54

SH2, Hydrogen sulfide

Question 55

Prebiotics are usually oligomers, like fructans (fructooligosaccharides; FOS). Which species is increased with FOS supplementation due to their converting the FOS into buyrate (but not lactic acid)? Lactobacilli Bifidobacterium Proteus Saccharomyces boulardii

Answer 55

Bifidobacterium

Question 56

How long would it likely take to reseed a gut with daily ingestion of probiotics (10 billion CFUs)? 3 months 6 months 9 months 12 months

Answer 56

6 months

Question 57

Which causes the intestinal smooth muscles to contract? to push food along the tract? Secretin CCK Acetylcholine Epinephrine

Answer 57

Acetylcholine

Question 58

Which is secreted after the GI tract is emptied and relaxes the stomach and intestinal muscles and decreases blood flow to them? Secretin CCK Acetylcholine Epinephrine

Answer 58

Epinephrine

Question 59

Preterm infants are fully able to digest and absorb fats. True or false

Answer 59

False

Question 60

How many months after birth before an infant can digest starches and animal fats? 3 6 9 12

Answer 60

6

Question 61

Which process does HCL induce in the stomach? Hydrolysis Evaporation Denaturation Distallation

Answer 61

Denaturation

Question 62

True digestibility of fatty acids 65-75% 75-85% 85-95% > 95%

Answer 62

>95%

Question 63

Which is a brush border enzyme? Sucrase Protease Amylase HCL

Answer 63

Sucrase also lactase and maltase

Question 64

Increased glucose stimulates _____ within pancreatic beta-cells? Gluconeogenesis Glycogenesis Glycolysis Glycogenolysis

Answer 64

Glycolysis

Question 65

Rate of ________ Production is proportional to rates of glycolysis and TCA cycling. When ____ is elevated, it causes a(n) ______ in insulin synthesis/secretion. NAD, NAD, increase NADPH, NADH, decrease NADH, NADH, increase NADH, NADPH, decrease

Answer 65

NADH, NADH, increase

Question 66

Which hormone stimulates the GLUT4 receptor, glycogenesis, glycolysis, increased TG storage in adipocytes, and protein synthesis d/t increased AA uptake? Epinephrine Insulin Glucagon Dopamine

Answer 66

Insulin

Question 67

When glucose is low, what happens to the rate of lipolysis and plasma FFA concentration? Decreases Increases Unaffected

Answer 67

both increase

Question 68

When FFA plasma concentration is increased, the FFAs ______ with Tryptophan, T3, and T4 for transporter binding sites, causing an ______ in Free Trp, T3, and T4. Bind, increase Bind, decrease Compete, increase Compete, decrease

Answer 68

Compete, increase

Question 69

What happens to serotonin synthesis when concentrations of free Trp are increased? Decreases Increases Unaffected

Answer 69

Increases

Question 70

Increased insulin results in _______ serotonin synthesis. Decreased Increased Unaffected

Answer 70

decreased (due to the higher glucose concentration that triggers the insulin level reducing lipolysis, which reduces FFAs that compete with with Trp ... so Trp stays on the transporter and isn't free to enter serotonin synthesis)

Question 71

When glucose is low, what is secreted and from where to stimulate hepatic glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis from Amino acids? Insulin, beta cells Insulin, alpha cells glucagon, alpha cells glucagon, beta cells

Answer 71

glucagon, alpha cells Decreased plasma glucose concentration also triggers secretion of glucagon by pancreatic α-cells. After its secretion into the circulation by the pancreas, glucagon acts to stimulate hepatic glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis from amino acids.

Question 72

Prolonged CHO deprivation ____ total and free T4, which ____ BMR. Increases, increases Increases, decreases Decreases, increases Decreases, decreases

Answer 72

Decreases, decreases

Question 73

Low glucose stimulates glucocorticoid release from where? Adrenal cortex Adrenal medulla Pancreatic beta cells Pancreatic alpha cells

Answer 73

Adrenal cortex Decreased plasma glucose concentration stimulates glucocorticoid secretion by the adrenal cortex. Decreased plasma glucose concentration stimulates epinephrine secretion by the adrenal medulla.

Question 74

Glucocorticoids ______ protein catabolism Inhibit Stimulate

Answer 74

Stimulate

Question 75

Epinephrine is released due to ____ glucose levels. High Low

Answer 75

Low

Question 76

What secretes epinephrine? Adrenal cortex Adrenal medulla Pancreatic beta cells Pancreatic alpha cells

Answer 76

Adrenal medulla

Question 77

How does epinephrine affect glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, and TG lipolysis in hepatocytes? Stimulates it Inhibits it

Answer 77

Stimulates it

Question 78

Increased thyroid hormones affect glycolysis and BMR how? Stimulates and increases Inhibits and decreases

Answer 78

stimulates and increases

Question 79

What is produced in the stomach to stimulate food intake? Leptin Lectin Ghrelin Insulin

Answer 79

Ghrelin

Question 80

____ is produced in the ____ and signals satiety. Ghrelin, stomach Leptin, fat tissue Insulin, pancreas CCK, liver

Answer 80

Leptin, fat tissue

Question 81

Leptin resistance can occur in obesity and inflammation. True or False

Answer 81

True

Question 82

Which hormone enhances insulin sensitivity and glucose homeostasis by down regulating gluconeogenesis and increasing FFA oxidation? (it can also inhibit inflammation) Leptin Insulin Epinephrine Adiponectin

Answer 82

Adiponectin Having a significant role in obesity, Type 2 Diabetes and atherosclerosis, this is a hormone that has a central metabolic role. It specifically enhances insulin sensitivity and glucose homeostasis by down-regulating gluconeogenisis and increasing fatty acid oxidation. It may also have a role in inflammation inhibition.

Question 83

Which method of inheritance occurs when both parents carry the expressed gene? ``` Autosomal dominant Autosomal recessive X linked Recessive X linked Dominant Y linked ```

Answer 83

Autosomal recessive (both have to have it so offspring is homozygous)

Question 84

Which method of inheritance occurs when the expressed phenotype only comes from 1 parent? ``` Autosomal dominant Autosomal recessive X linked Recessive X linked Dominant Y linked ```

Answer 84

Autosomal dominant...the offspring is heterozygous but expresses the trait

Question 85

Which method of inheritance affects only fathers and their sons? ``` Autosomal dominant Autosomal recessive X linked Recessive X linked Dominant Y linked ```

Answer 85

Y linked

Question 86

Which method of inheritance affects male offspring more than female, while both parents are unaffected and mom is usually an asymptomatic carrier? ``` Autosomal dominant Autosomal recessive X linked Recessive X linked Dominant Y linked ```

Answer 86

X linked recessive

Question 87

Which method of inheritance affects female offspring more than males? ``` Autosomal dominant Autosomal recessive X linked Recessive X linked Dominant Y linked ```

Answer 87

X linked dominant

Question 88

Pentoses and hexoses are Monosaccharides Disaccharides

Answer 88

Monosaccharides The common pentoses are ribose and deoxyribose (the essential components of nucleic acids). The most common hexoses are galactose, glucose (sometimes called dextrose), and fructose. These monosaccharides are found commonly in fruits, honey, maple sugar, cane sugar and other "sweet" plant products.

Question 89

Galactose, glucose, and fructose are examples of Pentoses Hexoses

Answer 89

hexoses

Question 90

Ribose and deoxyribose are Pentoses Hexoses

Answer 90

Pentoses

Question 91

Disaccharides are 2 monosaccharides linked together. True False

Answer 91

True

Question 92

Lactose, maltose, and sucrose are Monosaccharides Disaccharides

Answer 92

Disaccharides

Question 93

Lactose is Glucose + galactose Glucose + lactose Glucose + fructose

Answer 93

Glucose plus galactose

Question 94

Sucrose is Glucose + galactose Glucose + lactose Glucose + fructose

Answer 94

Glucose plus fructose

Question 95

Oligosaccharides are polysaccharides that are Hydrolyzable Not hydrolyzable

Answer 95

Hydrolyzable Oligosaccharides are composed of monosaccharide units joined together by glycosidic bonds susceptible to hydrolysis by human enzymes. Polysaccharides are long chain oligosaccharides that contain two or more monosaccharides linked together in a repeating pattern.

Question 96

Dietary fibers are polysaccharides that are Hydrolyzable Not hydrolyzable

Answer 96

not hydrolyzable

Question 97

Which type of fiber binds water, softens stool, slows the rate of stomach emptying, and binds glucose/cholesterol?

Answer 97

Soluble

Question 98

Which type of fiber adds stool bulk and increases frequency, binds bile salts and conjugated steroids?

Answer 98

Insoluble

Question 99

Beta glucans, mucilages, pectins...are which type of fiber?

Answer 99

Soluble

Question 100

Cellulose and hemicellulose are which type of fiber?

Answer 100

Insoluble

Question 101

Essential AAs PT 1: What does Essential AA mean? PT 2: What are the 9 Essential AA? 1. Alanine 2. Arginine 3. Asparagine 4. Aspartic Acid (Aspartate = anionic form) 5. Cysteine 6. Glutamic acid (Glutamate = ionic form) 7. Glutamine 8. Glycine 9. Histidine 10. Isoleucine 11. Leucine 12. Lysine 13. Methionine 14. Phenylalanine 15. Proline 16. Serine 17. Threonine 18. Tryptophan 19. Tyrosine 20. Valine 21. Selenocysteine

Answer 101

PT 1: Essential amino acids, also known as indispensable amino acids. Essential AA is required to be obtained through the diet b/c humans 86 the metabolic pathways required to synthesize these amino acids. PT 2: Histidine, Isoleucine, Leucine, Lysine, Methionine, Phenylalanine, Threonine, Tryptophan, Valine.

Question 102

Conditional AAs PT 1: What does Conditional AAs mean? PT 2: What are the 8 Conditional AAs? 1. Alanine 2. Arginine 3. Asparagine 4. Aspartic Acid (Aspartate = anionic form) 5. Cysteine 6. Glutamic acid (Glutamate = ionic form) 7. Glutamine 8. Glycine 9. Histidine 10. Isoleucine 11. Leucine 12. Lysine 13. Methionine 14. Phenylalanine 15. Proline 16. Serine 17. Threonine 18. Tryptophan 19. Tyrosine 20. Valine 21. Selenocysteine

Answer 102

PT 1: Conditional amino acids are usually not essential, except in times of illness and stress PT 2: Arginine, Cysteine, Glutamine, Tyrosine, Glycine, Ornithine, Proline, and Serine.

Question 103

Non-Essential AAs PART 1: 1A) Define what is a non-essential AA 1B) Name the 11 non-essential AA PART 2: 2A) What are 10 of 11 synthesized from? 2B) Synthesized from Phenylalanine (1)? 1. Alanine 2. Arginine 3. Asparagine 4. Aspartic Acid (Aspartate = anionic form) 5. Cysteine 6. Glutamic acid (Glutamate = ionic form) 7. Glutamine 8. Glycine 9. Histidine 10. Isoleucine 11. Leucine 12. Lysine 13. Methionine 14. Phenylalanine 15. Proline 16. Serine 17. Threonine 18. Tryptophan 19. Tyrosine 20. Valine 21. Selenocysteine

Answer 103

1A) Our bodies can produce even if 86 get from the food we eat. 1B) Alanine, Arginine, Asparagine, Aspartic acid, Cysteine, Glutamic acid, Glutamine, Glycine, Proline, Serine, and Tyrosine. 2A) Synthesized from GLUCOSE 2B) Tyrosine (86 synthesized from glucose)

Question 104

Which is major source of dietary sulfur? Methionine Proline Glutamine Cysteine

Answer 104

Methionine

Question 105

Aromatic AAs are building blocks for _A_ and _B_, known to aid in _C_ health and function and serve as _D_ for the synthesis w/many active compounds. The _E_ system relies heavily on adequate AA consumption to ensure _F_ production, maintenance, and concentration are sufficient, allowing for optimal biological and neurological function. The names of the 3 Aromatic AAs are __G__, __H__, __I__. First, is _J_ converted to _K_. Then, _L_ and _M_ are converted to _N_; Serotonin, Dopamine, Norepinephrine, Epinephrine. 1. Alanine 2. Arginine 3. Asparagine 4. Aspartic Acid (Aspartate = anionic form) 5. Cysteine 6. Glutamic acid (Glutamate = ionic form) 7. Glutamine 8. Glycine 9. Histidine 10. Isoleucine 11. Leucine 12. Lysine 13. Methionine 14. Phenylalanine 15. Proline 16. Serine 17. Threonine 18. Tryptophan 19. Tyrosine 20. Valine 21. Selenocysteine

Answer 105

A) Proteins B) Neurotransmitters C) Neurological D) Precursors E) CNS F) Neurotransmitters G-I) Phenylalanine, Tryptophan, Tyrosine ``` J) Phenylalanine K)Tyrosine L) Tyrosine M) Tryptophan N) Neurotransmitters ```

Question 106

Val, Leu, Ile are important fuel for voluntary muscles. Collectively, what are they referred to as?

Answer 106

BCAAs

Question 107

Coconut, palm, and palm kernel are sources of which type of Saturated Fatty Acid? Palmitic Stearic

Answer 107

Palmitic

Question 108

Sources of Stearic acid? Seafood Meat, milk, butter, cocoa Nuts and seeds

Answer 108

Meat milk butter cocoa

Question 109

What type of MUFA do olives, almonds, avocadoes, peanuts, pecans, and macadamia nuts provide?

Answer 109

Oleic

Question 110

Safflower, sunflower, corn, hemp, sesame are sources of which? Linoleic Linolenic EPA DHA

Answer 110

Linoleic

Question 111

Flax, canola, walnuts, soy, dark green leafy veggies are sources of which? Linoleic Linolenic EPA DHA

Answer 111

Linolenic linoleic acid (18:2ω6; sources: safflower, sunflower, corn, soybean and sesame oils, hemp and pumpkin

Question 112

Borage oil, black currant seed, and EPO are sources of EPA DHA GLA AA

Answer 112

GLA

Question 113

Medium chain fatty acids have how many carbons? 4-6 7-12 13-20

Answer 113

7-12

Question 114

Long chain FAs have how many carbons?

Answer 114

> 14

Question 115

Pyrimidines and purines are types of Organic acids Nucleic Acids Minerals Vitamins

Answer 115

Nucleic Acids

Question 116

Which is an organic compound required by an enzyme in order for it to function and is consumed in the reaction and requires regeneration for use again later? Cofactor Coenzyme Regulatory protein

Answer 116

Coenzyme

Question 117

Which is required for full activation of the enzyme, functions as part of the enzyme, and is not consumed by the reaction? Cofactor Coenzyme Regulatory protein

Answer 117

Cofactor

Question 118

Which is the hydrolysis of the glycogen stores in the liver and muscle to glucose monomers? Glycogenesis Glycolysis Glycogenolysis Gluconeogenesis

Answer 118

Glycogenolysis

Question 119

Which converts glucose into pyruvate? Glycogenesis Glycolysis Glycogenolysis Gluconeogenesis

Answer 119

Glycolysis

Question 120

Which creates the polysaccharide storage chain of glycogen polymers are created from glucose monomers. Glycogenesis Glycolysis Glycogenolysis Gluconeogenesis

Answer 120

Glycogenesis

Question 121

Following glycolysis, which enzyme activates pyruvate for entry into the mitochondria for the TCA cycle and requires B1, B2, B3, B5, lipoic? Pyruvate hydrogenase Pyruvate carboxylase Pyruvate dehydrogenase Pyruvate decarboxylase

Answer 121

Pyruvate dehydrogenase

Question 122

Mitochondria-less cells, like RBCs, cannot convert pyruvate for energy through a TCA cycle. Instead, they convert it into _____ using _____ (enzyme). Oxygen, oxygen synthase Lactate, lactate dehydrogenase Glycogen, glycogen synthase glucose, none

Answer 122

Lactate, LDH

Question 123

The TCA cycle metabolizes the acetyl-CoA into CO2. Which enzyme in the cycle is irreversible? Aconitase Citrate synthase Succinate dehydrogenase Fumarase

Answer 123

Citrate synthase

Question 124

TCA is aerobic. True or False

Answer 124

True

Question 125

The Pentose Mononphosphate Shunt is an alternate path of glucose metabolism. It synthesizes pentoses and CO2 NO NAD+ NADPH2

Answer 125

NADPH2

Question 126

Which is the primary hepatic pathway for de novo glucose synthesis from lactate, pyruvate, or alanine? Glycogenesis Glycolysis Glycogenolysis Gluconeogenesis

Answer 126

Gluconeogenesis

Question 127

Gluconeogenesis is the exact reverse of glycolysis. True or False

Answer 127

FALSE ... 3 glycolytic enzymes are irreversible: pyruvate kinase, glucokinase, and phosphofructokinase

Question 128

In gluconeogenesis, since pyruvate kinase is irreversible, pyruvate is first converted to what by which enzyme, and which cofactor does that enzyme need? Lactate, LDH, NADH Citrate, citrate synthase, FADH2 Oxaloacetate, Pyruvate carboxylase, biotin PEP, PEP carboxylase, GTP

Answer 128

Oxaloacetate, pyruvate carboxylase, biotin

Question 129

The second step of bypassing pyruvate kinase in gluconeogenesis creates which product using which enzyme and which cofactor? Lactate, LDH, NADH Citrate, citrate synthase, FADH2 Oxaloacetate, Pyruvate carboxylase, biotin PEP, PEP carboxylase, GTP

Answer 129

PEP, PEP carboxylase, GTP

Question 130

In gluconeogenesis, 1 glucose is formed from how many Pyruvate, ATP, and GTP? 2 pyruvate, 1 ATP, 1 GTP 2 pyruvate, 2 ATP, 1 GTP 1 pyruvate, 1 ATP, 1 GTP

Answer 130

2 pyruvate, 2 ATP, 1 GTP

Question 131

The Alanine cycle involves the conversion of pyruvate to alanine in muscle cells. Alanine is sent to the __A___ to be converted back to __B__ which is then made into _C___? Kidneys, glucose, pyruvate Liver, lactate, glucose Liver, pyruvate, glucose Kidney, pyruvate, glucose

Answer 131

A) Liver....converted back to B) Pyruvate...then hepatic gluconeogenesis converts the pyruvate into D) Glucose

Question 132

After LDH (Lactate Dehydrogenase) converts pyruvate to Lactate in the RBCs, it is cycled to the liver where it is converted back to pyruvate and then into glucose. What is this cycle called? The Alanine Cycle The Lactate-Glucose cycle The Cori Cycle The Pyruvate-Lactate cycle

Answer 132

The Cori Cycle

Question 133

Free fatty acids are activated for oxidation by adding what to make what? CoA, Fatty Acyl-CoA CoA, Fatty Acetyl-CoA OH, Hydroxylated FFA Glucose, Glycosylated FFA

Answer 133

CoA, Fatty Acyl-CoA

Question 134

Fatty Acyl-CoA must be combined with which amino acid to make entry into the mitochondria? Lysine Carnitine Taurine Methionine

Answer 134

Carnitine

Question 135

Within mitochondria, 2-carbon units are cleaved (decarboxylation) via beta- oxidation and transferred to TCA cycle enzymes. The remaining fatty acid remnant is combined to another coenzyme A moiety and the cycle of beta-oxidation is continued until only a 2- or 3- carbon unit remains. What is the 2 carbon unit? Acyl-CoA CoQ10 Acetyl CoA Pyruvate

Answer 135

Acetyl CoA

Question 136

Excitatory neurotransmitters function to activate receptors on the postsynaptic membrane and enhance the effects of the action potential. What is the primary excitatory neurotransmitter? Glutamate (Glu), Acetylcholine (ACh), Histamine, Dopamine (DA), Norepinephrine (NE)/noradrenaline (NAd), Epinephrine (Epi)/Adrenaline (Ad)

Answer 136

1. Glutamate: Primary excitatory transmitter & main excitatory transmitter in CNS

Question 137

Inhibitory neurotransmitters function is to prevent an action potential, what is the major inhibitory neurotransmitters? Gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA), Serotonin (5-HT), Dopamine (DA)

Answer 137

1. GABA: Metabolite of glutamate and is the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the adult vertebrate brain.

Question 138

Acetylcholine (ACh) is an excitatory neurotransmitter, which 2 are a function of ACh? ``` Regulates sleep cycle Increases the level of wakefulness Essential for muscle functioning Response with glucose production Motivation/desire to complete a task Increases the level of alertness Prepares the body for the fight-or-flight ```

Answer 138

Regulates sleep cycle | Essential for muscle functioning

Question 139

Norepinephrine (NE) also known as noradrenaline (NAd), is an excitatory neurotransmitter produced by the brainstem, hypothalamus, and adrenal glands and released into the bloodstream. Which 2 are a function of NE? ``` Regulates sleep cycle Increases the level of wakefulness Essential for muscle functioning Response with glucose production Increases the level of alertness Motivation/desire to complete a task Prepares the body for the fight-or-flight ```

Answer 139

In the brain, it increases the level of alertness and wakefulness. Norepinephrine has been implicated in mood disorders such as depression and anxiety, in which case its concentration in the body is abnormally low. Alternatively, an abnormally high concentration of it may lead to an impaired sleep cycle.

Question 140

Epinephrine, also known as adrenaline (Ad), epinephrine (Epi) is an excitatory neurotransmitter produced by the chromaffin cells of the adrenal gland. Which 1 is the best describe function of NE? ``` Regulates sleep cycle Increases the level of wakefulness Essential for muscle functioning Motivation/desire to complete a task Increases the level of alertness Prepares the body for the fight-or-flight ```

Answer 140

Prepares the body for the fight-or-flight It prepares the body for the fight-or-flight response. That means that when a person is highly stimulated (fear, anger etc.), extra amounts of epinephrine are released into the bloodstream.The fight-or-flight response (increased heart rate, blood pressure, and glucose production) This release of epinephrine increases heart rate, blood pressure, and glucose release from the liver (via glycogenolysis). In this way, the nervous and endocrine systems prepare the body for dangerous and extreme situations by increasing nutrient supply to key issues.

Question 141

Dopamine (DA) is a neurotransmitter secreted by the neurons of the substantia nigra. It is considered a special type of neurotransmitter because its effects are both excitatory and inhibitory. Which effect depends on the type of receptor that dopamine binds to. Inhibits unnecessary movements, inhibits the release of prolactin, and stimulates the secretion of growth hormone. Which 1 is the best describe function of DA? ``` Regulates sleep cycle Increases the level of wakefulness Essential for muscle functioning Motivation/desire to complete a task Increases the level of alertness Prepares the body for the fight-or-flight ```

Answer 141

an appropriate secretion of dopamine in the bloodstream plays a role in the motivation and desire to complete a task Dopamine deficiency related to the destruction of the substantia nigra leads to Parkinson’s disease. Increased activity of dopaminergic neurons contributes to the pathophysiology of psychotic disorders and schizophrenia. Drug and alcohol abuse can temporarily increase dopamine levels in the blood, leading to confusion and the inability to focus.

Question 142

Gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) is the most powerful inhibitory neurotransmitter produced by the neurons of the spinal cord, cerebellum, basal ganglia, and many areas of the cerebral cortex. It is derived from glutamate. Reduces neuronal excitability throughout the nervous system. Which 1 best describes the functions of GABA? Regulates body temperature Closely related to mood and emotions Perception of: pain, emotions, sleep cycle In the stomach will increases acidity Regulation w/general CNS excitability Learning processes and memory Wakefulness, BP, pain & sexual behavior

Answer 142

Closely related to mood and emotions. It is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that acts as a brake to excitatory neurotransmitters; thus when it is abnormally low this can lead to anxiety. It is widely distributed in the brain and plays a principal role in reducing neuronal excitability throughout the nervous system.

Question 143

Glutamate (Glu) is the most powerful excitatory neurotransmitter of the central nervous system which ensures homeostasis with the effects of GABA. It is secreted by neurons of many of the sensory pathways entering the central nervous system, as well as the cerebral cortex. Which 2 best describes Glu functions? Regulates body temperature Closely related to mood and emotions Perception of: pain, emotions, sleep cycle In the stomach will increases acidity Regulation w/general CNS excitability Learning processes and memory Wakefulness, BP, pain & sexual behavior

Answer 143

Regulation w/general CNS excitability Learning processes and memory. Inappropriate glutamate neurotransmission contributes to developing epilepsy and cognitive and affective disorders.

Question 144

Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) is an inhibitory neurotransmitter. It is secreted by the neurons of the brainstem and by neurons that innervate the gastrointestinal tract (enteric nervous system). Which 3 best describes Serotonin functions? Regulates body temperature Closely related to mood and emotions Perception of: pain, emotions, sleep cycle In the stomach will increases acidity Regulation w/general CNS excitability Learning processes and memory Wakefulness, BP, pain & sexual behavior

Answer 144

Regulates body temperature Perception of: pain, emotions, sleep cycle Closely related to mood and emotions In participates in the regulation of body temperature, perception of pain, emotions, and sleep cycle. Insufficient secretion of serotonin may result in decreased immune system function, as well as a range of emotional disorders like depression, anger control problems, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and even suicidal tendencies.

Question 145

Histamine is an excitatory neurotransmitter produced by neurons of the hypothalamus, cells of the stomach mucosa, mast cells, and basophils in the blood. Which 2 describes Histamine functions? Regulates body temperature Closely related to mood and emotions Perception of: pain, emotions, sleep cycle In the stomach will increases acidity Regulation w/general CNS excitability Learning processes and memory Wakefulness, BP, pain & sexual behavior

Answer 145

Wakefulness, BP, pain & sexual behavior In the stomach, it increases acidity Regulates wakefulness, blood pressure, pain, and sexual behavior; increases the acidity of the stomach; mediates inflammatory reactions. It is involved primarily in the inflammatory response, as well as a range of other functions such as vasodilation and regulation of the immune response to foreign bodies. For example, when allergens are introduced into the bloodstream, histamine assists in the fight against these microorganisms causing itching of the skin or irritations of the throat, nose, and or lungs.

Question 146

Alzheimer’s disease is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by learning and memory impairments. It is associated with a lack of acetylcholine in certain regions of the brain. What nutrient would be helpful to increase due to being a nutrient precursor for the neurotransmitter, acetylcholine, which is known to impact memory? Choline Glucose Tryptophan Tyrosine

Answer 146

Choline. The human body uses choline to produce acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter responsible for functioning memory, muscle control, and mood. Choline also is used to build cell membranes and plays a vital role in regulating gene expression. Choline acts to protect the brain from Alzheimer's in 2 ways: 1. Choline blocks the production of amyloid-beta plaques, amyloid-beta plaques are the hallmark pathology observed in Alzheimer's Disease. 2. Choline supplementation reduces the activation of microglia, over-activation of microglia causes brain inflammation and can eventually lead to neuronal death, thereby compromising cognitive function. Choline supplementation reduces the activation of microglia, offering further protection from the ravages of Alzheimer's Disease.

Question 147

Aubergine, bitter orange, common bean, mung bean, peas, radish, squash, spinach, foxglove, wild strawberry, mistletoe, and nettle species are rich sources of what neurotransmitter? ``` Histamine Dopamine Serotonin (5-HT) GABA Glutamate Acetylcholine (ACh) ```

Answer 147

Acetylcholine (ACh) With aubergine, squash, and spinach being the richest out of all listed for ACh. doi: 10.3390/nu10050591

Question 148

Glutamic acid is an AA that naturally occurs in foods with high content of _____. Meats, seafood, stews, soups, and sauces being examples of food sources for this macronutrient. Carbohydrates Protein Lipids

Answer 148

Protein doi: 10.3390/nu10050591

Question 149

Glutamate is a non-essential AA and the most important excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain. At what pH level does dietary glutamic acid become transformed into glutamate; being its anionic form. pH Level 5 pH Level 6 pH Level 7 none of these pH levels

Answer 149

pH 7 doi: 10.3390/nu10050591

Question 150

Caviar, cheese, crackling, chips, dried cod, fermented beans, fish sauces, gravies, instant coffee powder, meats, miso, mushrooms, noodle dishes, oyster sauce, Parmesan cheese, ready-to-eat meals, salami, savory snacks, seafood, seaweeds, soups, soy sauces, spinach, stews, and tomato are rich food sources of what neurotransmitter? ``` Histamine Dopamine Serotonin (5-HT) GABA Glutamate Acetylcholine (ACh) ```

Answer 150

Glutamate doi: 10.3390/nu10050591

Question 151

Bananas, chicory, Chinese cabbage, coffee powders, green coffee bean, green onion, hazelnut, kiwi, lettuce, nettle, paprika, passion fruit, pawpaw, pepper, pineapple, plantain, plum, pomegranate, potato, spinach, strawberry, tomato, velvet bean, and wild rice are rich sources of what neurotransmitter? ``` Histamine Dopamine Serotonin (5-HT) GABA Glutamate Acetylcholine (ACh) ```

Answer 151

Serotonin (5-HT) doi: 10.3390/nu10050591

Question 152

Aubergine, avocado, banana, common bean, apple, orange, peas, plantain, spinach, tomato, and velvet bean are rich food sources of what neurotransmitter? ``` Histamine Dopamine Serotonin (5-HT) GABA Glutamate Acetylcholine (ACh) ```

Answer 152

Dopamine doi: 10.3390/nu10050591

Question 153

Demonstrated to increase in response to biotic and abiotic stresses, such as drought, the presence of salt, wounds, hypoxia, infection, soaking, and germination. ``` Histamine Dopamine Serotonin (5-HT) GABA Glutamate Acetylcholine (ACh) ```

Answer 153

GABA doi: 10.3390/nu10050591

Question 154

Adzuki bean, barley, broccoli, buckwheat, chestnut, common bean, kale, lupin, maypop, mouse-ear hawkweed, oat, pea, pokeroot, potato, rice, shiitake, soya bean, spinach, St John’s wort, sweet potato, tea, tomato, valerian, wheat, and wild celery are rich food sources of what neurotransmitter? ``` Histamine Dopamine Serotonin (5-HT) GABA Glutamate Acetylcholine (ACh) ```

Answer 154

GABA doi: 10.3390/nu10050591

Question 155

What neurotransmitter is known for its analgesic effects , anti-anxiety, and hypotensive activity. Herbal sources are seen in Chinese White Tea, Mistletoe, Pokeroot, Valerian, Wild Celery, St John’s Wort, and Maypop. Dopamine Serotonin (5-HT) GABA Free Glutamic Acid

Answer 155

GABA doi: 10.3390/nu10050591

Question 156

Anchovy, beer, billfish, Champagne and Sherry, dandelion, fermented sausages, ham and other cured dry meat products, herring, ketchup, aged cheeses, nettle, red, white, and dessert wines, sardine, and sauerkraut are rich food sources of what neurotransmitter? ``` Histamine Dopamine Serotonin (5-HT) GABA Glutamate Acetylcholine (ACh) ```

Answer 156

Histamine doi: 10.3390/nu10050591

Question 157

Of the following vitamins, which are most closely associated with cognitive performance such as concentration, learning, memory, and reasoning. B-vitamins and vitamin C Vitamin B1, B2, B3, B6 Vitamin C, B1, B5, B6, B9, B12 B-vitamins

Answer 157

B-vitamins and vitamin C **The term ‘performance’ has been used to include those aspects of cognitive function, such as concentration, learning, memory, and reasoning. https://doi.org/10.1177/147323000703500101

Question 158

Of the following minerals, which are most closely associated with cognitive performance such as concentration, learning, memory, and reasoning. Calcium, Magnesium, Zinc Copper, Folic Acid, Calcium Iodine, Iron, Zinc Chromium, Boron, Iron

Answer 158

Calcium, Magnesium, Zinc **The term ‘performance’ has been used to include those aspects of cognitive function, such as concentration, learning, memory, and reasoning. https://doi.org/10.1177/147323000703500101

Question 159

True or False? Magnesium is essential for all enzymes requiring vitamin B1 as a cofactor. Both magnesium and vitamin B2 are required for the conversion of vitamin B6 into its active form. Extra-cellular magnesium is critical for the maintenance of nerve and muscle membranes and for the transmission of impulses across neuromuscular junctions.

Answer 159

True doi.org/10.1177/147323000703500101

Question 160

What drug class that functions by increasing the effects of specific neurotransmitters? Agonists SSRI Antagonists Antidepressants

Answer 160

Agonists

Question 161

Depression is believed to be caused by the depletion of norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine in the CNS. Deficiency in vitamin B3, B6, folic acid, zinc, and magnesium have all been linked to depression. Would a Mediterranean diet, being high in vegetables, fruits, legumes, nuts, beans, cereals, grains, fish, and unsaturated fats such as olive oil, be good to recommend?

Answer 161

Yes and would be able to provide sufficient levels of: - Tryptophan - Selenium - Zinc - Magnesium - B-vitamins - Omega-3; EPA seems to be the most potent natural anti-depressant. - Antioxidants: Vit A (beta carotene) C, E * Serotonin is made in the body and brain from an amino acid called tryptophan which converts to 5-HTP then converts to serotonin. Tryptophan can be found in the diet; it’s in many protein-rich foods such as meat, fish, beans, and eggs. Best absorbed either on an empty stomach or, w/carb snacks; fruit 5-HTP is well-absorbed with or without food.

Question 162

What drug class acts to block the effects of neurotransmission? Agonists SSRI Antagonists Antidepressants

Answer 162

Antagonists

Question 163

Drugs that can influence neurotransmission include medications used to treat illness including depression and anxiety SSRIs Tricyclic antidepressants Benzodiazepines All

Answer 163

Tricyclic-antidepressants usually have more of an effect on norepinephrine levels than on serotonin levels. SSRIs also cause more serotonin to be available for neurons to use, by selectively inhibiting serotonin transporters. Benzodiazepines are drugs that slow down messages traveling between the brain and body. Other depressants include alcohol, cannabis, and heroin. Benzodiazepines are also minor tranquilizers, usually prescribed by doctors to relieve stress and anxiety and to help people sleep.

Question 164

True or False? People with either low blood levels of the B-vitamin folic acid, or high blood levels of the amino acid homocysteine (a sign that you are not getting enough B6, B12 or folic acid), are both more likely to be depressed and less likely to get a positive result from anti-depressant drugs.

Answer 164

True In a study comparing the effects of giving an SSRI with either a placebo or with folic acid, 61% of patients improved on the placebo combination but 93% improved with the addition of folic acid.

Question 165

Folic acid is one of seven nutrients – the others being B2, B6, B12, zinc, magnesium and TMG – that help normalise homocysteine. Having high homocysteine levels, a toxic amino acid found in the blood, doubles the odds of a woman developing depression. What is an ideal level for homocysteine: Below 10 but above 8 Below 10 aim closer to 7 Below 15 but above 12

Answer 165

Below 10 aim closer to 7. Ideally you want a low number. The average level is 10-11, and depression risk doubles with levels above 15. A low homocysteine = brain is good at ‘methylating’ (brain able to maintain chemistry in balance) Treatment: The higher your level the more likely folic acid will work for you. Eat wholefoods, fruits, vegetables, nuts and seeds, high in these nutrients and supplementing a multivitamin. If level is above 9mmol/l take a combined ‘homocysteine’ supplement of B2, B6, B12, folic acid, zinc, and TMG, providing at least 400mcg of folic acid, 250mcg of B12 and 20mg of B6. If your homocysteine score is above 15mmol/l double this amount.

Question 166

Vitamin B6 Functional Form: Pyridoxal phosphate Some enzymatic reactions vitamin B6 involved in: - Phosphorylation of Glycogen - Metabolism of Lipids and Nucleic Acids - Decarboxylation - AA: Synthesis/Catabolism/Racemization/Transformations. Q: What 3 neurotransmitters are influenced by vitamin B6 due to it being a critical nutrient required for normal brain function and neurotransmitters synthesis? GABA Dopamine ACh Serotonin

Answer 166

GABA, Dopamine, Serotonin Pyridoxal phosphate acts as a cofactor for a large number of enzymes involved in the synthesis, catabolism, decarboxylation, racemization, & other transformations of AA, metabolism of lipids & nucleic acids, and is the essential coenzyme for phosphorylation of glycogen. In the CNS + PNS, Vitamin B6 is essential for the synthesis of adrenaline, serotonin, dopamine, GABA, tyramine, and other neurotransmitters.

Question 167

Vitamin B1 Functional Form: Thiamine pyrophosphate Some enzymatic reactions vitamin B1 is involved: - Pyruvate dehydrogenase - α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase - Transketolase - Carbohydrate Metabolism Q: What neurotransmitter is influenced by vitamin B1 due to it being a critical nutrient required for normal brain function and neurotransmitters synthesis? Adrenaline ACh Serotonin Dopamine

Answer 167

ACh; Acetylcholine The thiamine coenzyme required for several stages in the breakdown of glucose to provide energy. It also plays a role in the conduction of nerve impulses. The brain and the peripheral nerves contain significant amounts of thiamine, which has numerous roles within nerve tissue.

Question 168

Acetyl CoA refers to the acetylated form of coenzyme A formed as an intermediate in the _1_ of carbohydrates, fats, proteins during _2_. Acyl CoA refers to a product of fatty acid activation subsequently carried by _3_ into the mitochondria for _4_. A) Oxidation + metabolism / carnitine + β-oxidation B) Combination + synthesis / glycine + decomposition C) β-oxidation + synthesis / glycine + detoxification D) Portion + catabolic / histidine + combustion

Answer 168

A) Oxidation + metabolism / carnitine + β-oxidation Acetyl CoA: acetylated form of coenzyme A formed as an intermediate in the oxidation of carbohydrates, fats, proteins during metabolism. Acyl CoA: refers to a product of fatty acid activation subsequently carried by carnitine into the mitochondria for β-oxidation.

Question 169

Vitamin C Functional Form: Ascorbate Some enzymatic reactions vitamin C involved in: - Redox/Antioxidant: Free radical quenching - Synthesis: Collagen, Bile Acids, Hormones - Folic acid: Absorption, Utilization Q: What 3 neurotransmitters are influenced by vitamin C due to it being a critical nutrient required for normal brain function and neurotransmitters synthesis? Adrenaline, Histamine, Dopamine Serotonin (5-HT), GABA, Glutamate ACh, Adrenaline, GABA Serotonin, Dopamine, Noradrenaline.

Answer 169

Serotonin, Dopamine, Noradrenaline. Vit C is also required by some critical enzymes as a cofactor, most particularly those that synthesize neurotransmitters such as dopamine and adrenaline. Acting as a co-factor for dopamine beta-hydroxylase conversion of dopamine to noradrenaline. Involvement w/modulation of the neurotransmission of dopaminergic and glutamatergic. - Regulation of catecholamine and acetylcholine release from synaptic vesicles. Crucial to cognitive performance due to its role in the differentiation and maturation of neurons and formation of the myelin sheath that protects them and speeds impulse transmission. - Synthesis of a number of hormones like noradrenaline or hormones activated by vitamin C-dependent amidation (calcitonin, vasopressin, oxytocin, cholecystokinin, gastrin). Neutralize superoxide radicals and protects against the formation of potentially carcinogenic nitrosamines from nitrate-containing foods such as smoked meats. - Vitamin C is essential for the metabolism and utilization of folic acid and improves the absorption of iron from the stomach. Vit C acts synergistically with zinc in collagen formation (such that lack of either leads to skin changes and delayed wound healing).

Question 170

Catecholamines help the body respond to stress or fright and prepare the body for "fight-or-flight" reactions. What vitamin aids in the regulation of catecholamine and acetylcholine release from synaptic vesicles? Vitamin A Vitamin C Vitamin D Vitamin K

Answer 170

Vitamin C https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fphys.2015.00397/full