Princeton Pysch Ch 7 - Identity and Group Identity Flashcards
1
Q
Self-concept versus self-identity. Give definitions.
A
Self-identity is broadly defined as the sum of an individual’s knowledge and understanding his or her-self. Differing from self-consciousness, which is awareness of one’s self, self-concept includes physical, psychological, and social attributes, which can be influenced by individual attitudes, habits, beliefs, and ideas.
2
Q
Personal identity.
A
Personal identity consists of one’s own sense of personal attributes; these can include smart and funny.
3
Q
Social identity.
A
Consists of social definitions of who you are; these can include race, religion, gender, occupation, etc.
4
Q
Self-reference effect.
A
Self-reference effect - tendency to better remember information relevant to ourselves. Inconsistent information is more difficult.
5
Q
With the self-reference effect what happens when one encounters something against their self-concept.
A
It is often easier to externalize information that opposes a self-concept by attributing it to an outside factor than it is to internalize the information an adjust’s oneself concept. A smart person who does poorly on a test is more likely to blame it on lack of sleep or unfair test.
6
Q
Ideal self vs. Real self; and what happens when they don’t coincide.
A
The ideal self is constructed out of your life experiences, societal expectations, and the things you admire about role models. The ideal self is the person you ought to be while the real self is the person you actually are. If they don’t match, the result is incongruity.
7
Q
Self-efficacy.
A
A belief in one’s own competence and effectiveness. It’s how capable we believe we are doing things.
8
Q
Internal versus External locus of control.
A
Those with internal locus of control believe they are able to influence outcomes through their own efforts and actions. Those with external locus of control perceive outcomes as controlled by outside forces.
9
Q
Learned helplessness.
A
Based on locus of control concept. In an extreme case of external locus of control, in which a person is exposed to situations in which they have no control, they may learn not to act bc they believe it will not affect teh outcome.
10
Q
Self esteem.
A
One’s overall self-evaluation of one’s self-worth. This may be based on different factors for different individuals depending on which parts of a person’s identity he/she has determined to be the most important. Related to self-efficacy (belief in one’s own competence) and can improve it related to an activity tat one values.
11
Q
At what stage in Erikson’s stages of development does an individual typically develop an identity?
A
The particular stage relevant to identity formation takes place during adolescence (12-20).
12
Q
Influence of social factors on identity formation - Looking glass self.
A
A person’s sense of self-develops from interpersonal interactions with others in society and the perception of others. People shape their self-concepts based on their understanding of how others perceive them.
13
Q
Social Behaviorism.
A
The mind and self emerge through the process of communicating with others.
14
Q
Symbolic interactionism.
A
The view of social behavior that emphasizes linguistic or gestural communication and its subjective understanding, especially the role of language in the formation of the child as a social being.
Related to social behaviorism. The idea that mind and self emerge through social process such as communication or use of symbols (gestures and language)
15
Q
Generalized other.
A
The common behavior expectations of general society.K
16
Q
Distinguish “I” and “me” for Mead.
A
I = response of the individual to the attitudes of others me = how the individual believes others view him/her
17
Q
Socialization.
A
The process through which people learn to be proficient and functional members of society; a lifelong sociological process where people learn the attitudes, values, and believes that is reinforced by a particular culture.
18
Q
Feral children.
A
Individuals who were not raised with human contact or care; highlights the negative repercussions of lack of socialization.
19
Q
Norms: definition and formal versus informal.
Also define normative behavior.
A
1) Norms - spoken or unspoken rules and expectations for the behavior of its society members
2) Normative behavior - social behaviors that follow these expectations and meet the ideal social standard
3) Formal - written down norms; defined punishment; ex. laws
4) Informal - norms generally understood but are less precise and carry no specific punishment; ex. shaking an interviewer’s hand.
20
Q
Norms - mores versus folkaways.
A
1) Mores - norms that are highly important for the benefit of society and so are often strictly enforced; ex. dog fighting
2) Folkways - norms that are less important but shape everyday behavior; ex. style of dress; ways of greeting
21
Q
Norms - taboo.
A
Behaviors that customs forbid. For a taboo, the case for a norm is so strong that its violation is considered forbidden and oftentimes punishable through formal or informal methods. Ex. eating pork for Muslims
22
Q
Anomie.
A
A concept that describes the social condition in which individuals are not provided with firm guidelines in relation to norms and values and there is minimal moral guidance or social ethic. Anomie suggest the disintegration of social bonds b/t individuals and their communities, which causes fragmentation of social identities in exchange for an emphasis on personal success.
23
Q
Non-normative behavior.
A
Behaviors viewed as incorrect because it challenges shared values and institutions, thus threatening social structure and cohesion.
24
Q
Deviance.
A
Actions that violate the dominant social normals, whether formal or informal are described as forms of deviance. Ex. deviant behavior can be criminal, in which public policies are violated. But remember, deviance is still a social construct. Shaking hands is good in the US but contact between man and women are forbidden in some countries.
25
Why is the construction of deviance important?
The process of creating deviant labels affirms and reinforces social norms and values through the dichotomous presentation of the acceptable (normative) behavior and (non-normative) unacceptable behavior.
26
Deviance Theories - differential association.
This perspective argues that deviance is a learned behavior resulting from interactions b/t individuals and their communities. Individuals who participate in communities that condone deviant behavior are more likely to become deviant themselves. Individuals become deviant when their contact with individuals who favor deviance outweigh with contacts who don't.
27
Deviance Theories - Criticism of differential association
Individuals are reduced to their environment; instead of considering ppl as independent, rational actors with personal motivations; deviant behavior is learned from one's environment without CHOICE.
28
Deviance Theories - Labeling theory.
Deviance is the result of society's response to a person rather than something inherent in the person's actions; individuals might internalize labels and redefine their concept of self, which can lead to self-fulfilling prophecies. Individuals might exhibit more deviant behaviors to fulfill the expectations associated with the specific label.
29
Deviance Theories - Criticism of labeling theory.
Individuals are seen to be influenced by the use of labels, which ignores their abilities to resist social expectations.
30
Agents of social control.
Individuals or institutions that have the ability to attach stigmas to certain behaviors. Social structures can contribute to labeling through allowing dominant to enforce normal behavior and thus define deviant behavior; perhaps institutionalizing these differences through legal policies.
31
Deviance Theories - Structural strain theory.
This theory purports that deviance is the result of experience strain, either individual or structural. Individuals experience social strain because existing social structures are inadequate, there is pressure to use deviant methods to prevent failure. When social goals and means are balanced, deviance is not expected.
32
Deviance Theories - Criticism of structural strain theory.
Some deviant behaviors, such as criminal persist, in excess and has nothing to do with social structures impeding them, like sexual assault. This perspective is more applicable to material rather than social goals. If the economic structure is not favorable, one might steal.
33
Collective behavior.
Actions of people operating as a collective group; the social norms for the situation is unclear. There is a difference between collective behavior and group - mainly, collective is short-lived and less conventional values influence group's behavior.
34
Collective versus group behavior.
Examples of collective behavior opposed to those of group behavior do not reflect the existing social structure but instead spontaneous situations in which individuals engage in actions that are otherwise unacceptable and violate social normals. Collective entails loss of the individual in exchange for sense of group. Ex. destructive mobs or the livestrong wristbrands.
35
Four classifications of collective behavior and their definitions.
1) Crowds - A group that shares a purpose
2) Public - A group of individuals discussing a single issue. People in publics share ideas
3) Masses - A group whose formation is prompted by the efforts of mass media. Masses can constitute a large group and doesn't have to be close proximity.
4) Social movements - Collective behavior with the intention of promoting change.
36
Collective behavior - herd behavior.
Often in the context of crowds, non-permanent loss of rational thought and the crowd influence individual behavior; this is referred to herd behavior.
37
Collective behavior - mob.
A mob is a specific example of a crowd in which emotion is heightened and behavior is direct toward a specific and violent cause. Ex. lynching.
38
Collective behavior - public.
A group of individuals discussing a single issue. People in publics share ideas.
39
Collective behavior - active social movements versus expressive social movements.
Active - attempt to foster change (ex. revolutions)
| Expressive - attempt to foster individual change (ex. support groups)
40
Collective behavior - fad/craze versus trends.
A fad or craze is an example of a collective behavior
in which 1) something experiences a rapid and dramatic incline in reputation and 2) remains popular among a large population for a brief period, and 3) experiences a rapid and dramatic decline in reputation. Ex. Gangnam style.
Trends are longer lived and often lead to permanent social changes, ex/ hippe movement and peace signs.
41
Collective behavior - Mass hysteria.
Collective delusion of some threat that spreads through emotions (ex. fear) and escalates until it spirals out of control (ex. a panic). Collective behavior in this case is often irrational as a result of emotional excess and thus mass hysteria has been described as a form of groupthink.
42
Collective behavior - riots.
Riots are a form of crowd behavior; however, there is no specified end. Riots can have serious consequences for economics and politics.
43
Name the six agents of socialization. These are social forces that influence our lives and the development of culture over time.
1) Family - first ones to influence
2) School
3) peer groups - family less important when older
4) workplace - workplace behavior and occupation influences identity
5) religion/government - influences the course of cultural change via milestones and celebrations (Bapmispha and drinking at 21)
6) mass media/technology - internet, movies, cell phones
44
Assimilation.
The process in which an individual forsakes aspects of his/her own cultural tradition to adopt those of a different culture. Ex. changing spoken language, religions, how they dress. When Chinese people immigrate to America.
A + B + C = A
45
Amalgamation.
Amalgamation occurs when majority and minority groups combine to form a new group.
A+B+C = D
46
Multiculturalism/ pluralism.
A perspective that endorses equal standing for all cultural traditions.
A+B+C = A + B + C
47
Subcultures.
A segment of society that shares a distinct pattern of traditions and values that differs from that of the larger society. Members of a subculture do participate in many activities of the larger culture, but also have unique behavior and activities that are specific to their subculture. Ex. Cabbage is a slang for coronary bypass for cardiologists.
48
Kolberg Stages of Moral Development include 6 identifiable developmental stages of moral reasoning, which form the basis of ethical behavior. Stages CANNOT be skipped. Most people don't surpass the 4th stage.
1) Obedience and punishment orientation - " how can I avoid punishment?"
2) Self-Interest orientation - " What's in it for me?"
3) Interpersonal accord and conformity - focus on approval and disapproval of others
4) Authority and social order maintaining orientation - beyond approval of others, individuals feel a duty to upload rules and social conventions
5) Social contract orientation - individuals see laws as social contracts to be changed when they don't promote welfare
6) Universal Ethical principles - morality based on abstract reasoning using universal ethical principles
49
Attribution theory.
Attempts to explain how individuals view behavior, both our own behavior and the behavior of others. Individuals attribute behavior to inernal causes (dispositional attribution) or external causes.
50
Attribution theory - dispositional versus situational.
Disposition: internal causes of behavior
Situational: external causes of behavior
51
Attribution theory - what trends do we observe with this?
People tend to assign dispositional attributions to others (they are just jerks), but give themselves the benefit of situational attributions.
52
What determines whether we attribute behavior to internal or external causes.
Ex. Angry friend
1) Consistency - Anger consistent with how your friend acts? Always --> internal
2) Distinctiveness - Is your friend angry toward everyone (internal/disposition) or just you(situational)?
3) Consensus - is your friend the only one angry? Only one - dispositional; everyone, like a playoff lost - situational
53
Fundamental Attribution error.
Tend to underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate the impact of a person's character or personality. We tend to assume people are how they act. Ex. You assume a driver who cuts you off is a jerk instead of them having to hurry somewhere important.
54
Actor-observer bias.
The tendency to blame our actions on the situation and blame the actions of others on their personalities is also called actor-observer bias.
55
Self-serving bias.
The tendency to attribute success to ourselves and our failures to others or the external environment.
56
Optimism bias.
The belief that bad things happen to other people but not to ourselves. This keeps us from feeling that the world is scary, unpredictable place. It is a defensive attribution.
57
Just world phenomenon.
The tendency to believe that the world is fair and people get what they deserve. When bad things happen to others, it is the result of their actions or their failure to act. Good things happen to me because I deserve them.
58
Halo Effect.
The tendency to believe that people have inherently good or bad natures, rather than looking at individual characteristics. Ex. Neighbor is nice so you assume he's a good dad.
59
Physical attribute stereotype.
People tend to rate attractive individuals more favorably for personality traits and characteristics than they do those who are less attractive.
60
Culture can affect attributions. Elaborate on Western versus Eastern Cultures.
Western cultures tend to endorse an individualistic attitude. This influences people toward more internal attributions for success and failure. Eastern Asian cultures, external attribution is more predominant. The system as a whole is scrutinized more than the individual.
61
Social perception.
The initial information we process about other people in order to try to understand their mindsets and intentions.
62
Social cognition.
The ability of the brain to store and process information regarding social perception.
63
False consensus.
Occurs when we assume everyone else agrees with what we do (even though they might not).
64
Projection bias.
Happens when we assume others have the same beliefs we do.
65
Stereotypes.
Oversimplified ideas about groups of people, based on characteristics (race, gender, sexual orientation, religion). Stereotypes can be positive or negative.
66
Prejudice.
Thoughts, attitudes, and feelings someone holds about a group that are not based on actual experience. It is biased thinking about a group and its members. Ex. Employer more likely to look at resumes with white-sounding names than black. The difference with discrimination is the action portion.
67
Discrimination.
Acting a certain way toward a group.
68
Racism.
Prejudices and actions that discriminate based on race, or hold that one race is inferior to another are called racism.
69
Institutional discrimination.
Unjust and discriminatory practices employed by large organizations that have been codified into operating procedures, processes, or institutional objectives. Ex. Don't ask don't tell of US military.
70
Scapegoat.
The unfortunate people at whom displaced aggression is directed. Ex. Jews were blamed for the economic struggles that preceded the genocide of WW2.
71
How can emotions play a role in feeding prejudices?
The core of prejudice is often fear or frustration. When someone is faced with something intimidating, especially if it is presumed to be blocking that person from some goal, hostility can be a natural reaction.
72
Sometimes, prejudice is just natural to our normal thinking. how?
Stereotypes, both positive and negative, stem from our mental shortcuts that simplify our conceptualizations of the world.
73
Illusory correlation.
People who are seen as distinctive draw more attention and are often likely to be seen as representatives of groups. Illusory correlation is created between a group of people and a characteristic based on unique cases. Michael Jordan made everyone assume black people are athletic.
74
Self-fulfilling prophecy.
Behaviors that affirm the original stereotypes. College guy who believes that girls in a certain sorority are snobby never interacts with them and thus the perception would never change.
75
Stereotype threat.
A self-fulfilling fear that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype. Idea that males are better at math than females resulted in informed females doing worse on an exam.
76
Ethnocentrism.
When different cultures interact, there is often a tendency to judge people from another culture by the standards of one's own culture. Ex. City dwellers look down on the rural based on their standards of occupation and wealth. Country folk may look down on city folks based on standards of morality and quality of life.
77
Cultural Relativism.
Judging another culture based on its own standards. This is difficult to do because it involves stepping into another person's shoe.
78
Groups.
A collection of any number of people (as few as 2) who regularly interact and identify with each other, sharing similar norms, values, and expectations.
79
Groups - primary versus secondary.
Primary groups play a more important role in an individuals life; these groups are smaller and include those with whom the individual engages with in person, in long-term, emotional ways. Serve as expressive function (emotional needs). Ex. family.
Secondary groups - larger and more impersonal, and may interact for specific reasons for shorter periods of time. (pragmatic needs) Ex. MCAT study group
80
Groups - in versus outgroup.
In-group - a group that an individual belongs to and believes to be an integral part of who she/he is. We tend to have favorable impressions of our outgroups because
Outgroup - a ground that an individual does not belong to. We have more negative impressions of our outgroup.
81
Reference group.
A standard measure that people compare themselves to. Ex. MCAT study group might be a reference group. What are the others studying?
82
Groups - aggregate.
People who exist in the same space but do not interact or share a common sense of identity. Ex. all the people who frequent a coffee shop on a regular basis (aggregate) versus your MCAT group going.
83
Groups - category.
People who share similar characteristics but are not otherwise tied together would be considered a category. Ex. All of the people studying for the MCAT this year make up a category of people.
84
Groups - Bureaucracy and the characteristics of an ideal one.
An administrative body and the processes by which this body accomplishes whole tasks.
1) Covers a fixed area of activity.
2) Hierarchically organized
3) Workers have expert training in an area of specialty
4) Organization rank is impersonal and advancement depends on qualifications
5) workers follow set procedures.
85
Groups - Bureaucracy Setbacks.
1) Workers follow set procedures, which can make the organization struggle to adapt to new challenges.
2) Workers might become overly attached to the role and lose sight of the organization mission as a whole
3) Workers might become overly attached to their set procedures and not respond flexibly to new challenges on an interpersonal level.
86
Iron Law of Oligarchy.
Although organizations may be founded to tackle new challenges in revolutionary ways, as their organization structure becomes more complex, it also becomes more conservative and less able to adapt. Bureucracies depend on increased centralization of tasks as one moves up the ranks. Workers will fight to maintain control of their task. Managers define their position at the top of the organizational structure. All complex organizations, regardless of how democratic they are when started, eventually develop into oligarchies.
87
Social facilitation - mere presence.
People are simply in each other's presence, either completing similar activities or apparently minding their own business. Ex. Grocery shopping with other people.
88
Social facilitatoin - social facilitation effect.
People tend to perform simple, well-learned tasks better when other people are present. Might help explain why some of us study in the library. The presence of others stimulates arousal, which serves to activate our dominant response (the practiced response).
89
Deindividuation and three factors than can cause it.
When people lose their sense of restraint and their individual identity in exchange for identifying with a group or mob mentality. An overall reduction in self-awareness.
1) group size - larger groups > diminished sense of identity
2) physical anonymity - facepaint + mask makes one less identifiable
3) arousing activities
90
Bystander effect.
A person is less likely to provide help when there are other bystanders. IN the Kitty Genovese case, she was stabbed to death and none of her neighbors called the cops because it was assumed someone did.
91
Social loafing.
Tendency for people to exert less effort if they are being evaluated as a group than if they are individually accountable. Ex. Audience of 500 > clap less loud opposed to an audience of 5.
92
Group polarization.
The average view of a member of the group is accentuated. The entire group tends toward more extreme versions of the average views they initally shared before discussion. Ex. a bunch of environmtal activist join together and then they feel more strongly about conservation.
93
Why group polarization occurs.
1) Information influence. The most common ideas to emerge are the ones that favor the dominant viewpoint.
2) Normative influence. Wanting to be accepted or admired by others, so you take a stronger stance on things to fit in.
94
Groupthink.
Pressure not to "rock the boat" in a group by providing a dissenting opinion. Although groupthink is a state of harmony, it can lead to terrible decisions.
95
Groupthink - mind guarding.
FIltering out information and facts that go against the beliefs of the group.
96
Deviance.
A violation of society's standards of conduct or experience.
97
Stigma.
A mark of disgrace associated with a particular circumstance, quality, or person. A demeaning label.
98
Confederates.
Individuals that are part of the experiment.
99
Confomity.
The phenomenon of adjusting behavior or thinking based on the behavior of thinking of others is called conformity. People want to avoid the disconfort of being different. Ex, Line experiment and following what others say. Authority and discomfort that disobedience evokes can cause people to conform. Ex. Shock experiment where ppl shocked to the maxed when implored even though person was in pain.
100
Three ways that behavior is motivated by social linfluences.
Compliance - Motivated by desire to seek reward ot avoid punishment.
Identification - desire to be like another person or group
Internatlizatoin - behavior motivated by values and beliefs that have been integrated into one's own value system. Ex. someone with strong morals might have not shocked person to the max.
101
Normative social influence.
When the motivation for compliance is desire for approval of others and to avoid rejection.
102
Informational social influence.
The process of complying because we want to do the right thing and we feel like others "know something I don't know". This is more likely to happen in new situations, ambigous situations or when an obvious authority figure is present.
103
Several factors can influence conformity. Name at least 4.
1) Group size
2) Unanimity - pressure to not dissent when everyone agrees
3) Cohesion - a person more likely to agree with opinions that come from someone within a group with whom the person identifies
4) Status - higher status ppl have a stronger influence
5) Accountability - ppl tend to conform when they must respond in front of others.
6) No prior commitments - once people have made public commitments, they tend to stick to them. Ex. Frat bro likely to follow norms of the group after pledging.
104
Status.
All the socially defined positions within a society.
105
Master status.
One that dominates the others and determines that individuals general position in society. Ex. Kobe Bryant's basketball status dominates the others. Fans of Kobe don't really consider his other statuses (father, husband, citizen).
106
Ascibed versus acheived status.
Ascribed - thsoe that are assigned to a person by society regardless of a person's own efforts.
Acheived - due largely to the individual's efforts.
107
Social roles.
Expectations for a people of a given social status.
108
Role conflict versus strain versus exit.
1) Role conflict - happens when there is a conflict in society's expectations for multiple status held by the same person (ex. male nurse or gay priest)
2) Role strain - when a SINGLE status results in conflicting expectations (ex. homosexual may feel pressure to avoid being too gay or not gay enough).
3) Role exit - the process of disengaging from a role that has become closely tied to one's self identity to take on another; ex. living at home in HS to alone in college.
109
Social network.
A web of social relationships, including those in which a person is directly linked to others as well as those in which people are indirectly connected to others (ex. friend's friend_
110
Organization.
Large, more impersonal groups that come together to pursue particular activities and meet goals are called organizations. They tend to be complex and hierarchially organized.
111
Utilitarian versus normative versus coercive organizatons.
1) Utilitarian - those in which the members get paid for their efforts, such as businesses
2) Normative - motivate membership based on morally relevant goals, ex. Mothers Against Drunk Driving
3) Coercive - are those for which members don't have a choice in joining (ex. prisons)
112
How does gender shape expression?
Women's greater sensitivity to nonverbal cues perhaps explains their greater emotional literacy, or ability to describe their emotions. Women demonstrate greater emotional responsiveness in positive and negative situations, with the exception of anger. Anger is one emotion that seems to be considered a masculine emotion.
113
Which gender is more empathetic?
Empathy, the ability to identify with others' emotions, is relatively EQUAL between the sexes.
114
How does culture shape expression?
Culture can provide an additional filture for interpreting emotion. Ex. Other cultures common emotions like fear and happiness are expressed in ways that Americans may find difficult to understand. Certain facial expressions do seem to be universal, in baby studies.
115
Impression management/self presentation.
The conscious or unconscious process whereby people attempt to manage their own images by influencing the perceptions of others. Ex. talking oneself up is an assertive strategy. Or, one can control social interactions.
116
Self-handicapping.
Defensive strategies for impression management include avoidance and self-handicapping, a strategy in which people create obstacles and excuses to avoid self-blame when they do poorly. Ex. Girl doesn't study blames failing on test for not studying and not because she's stupid.
117
Dramaturgical perspective.
This perspective posits that we imagine ourselves as playing certain roles when interacting with others. We base our presentations on cultural values, norms, and expectations, with the ultimate goal of presenting an acceptable self to others.
118
Dramaturgical perspective - front versus backstage.
Front - we play a role and use impression management to craft the way we come across to other people
Back - we let down our guard and be ourselves.
Ex. How you behave at work (front stage) versus how you behave at home.
119
Nonverbal communication.
All the methods for communication that we use that don't include words. z
120
Animal signals and communication - warning colors.
Bright colors meant to advertise to predators that an organism is toxic or noxious. Ex. poisonus frog.
121
Animal signals and communication - Mimicry.
Organisms who adapted over time to mimic the coloring of another poisonus organism, thus benefitting from the other organisms protection.
Ex. Monarchs make birds vomit. The Viceroy buttery looks very similar, even though it doesn't make birds vomit.
122
Animal signals and communication - Pheromones
Chemical messsengers employed by animals to communicate with each other.
Ex. Ants who find food release pheromones to signal other ants to come along.
123
Social behavior and attraction - proximity.
People prefer repeated exposure to the same stimuli, called the mere exposure effect. Familiarity breeds fondness.
124
Social behavior and attraction - appearance
Physical attractiveness is an important predictor of attraction. Attractive people are assumed to be more likeable. HUmans tend to prefer average, symmetrical faces.
125
Social behavior and attraction - similarity
Friends and partners are likely to share common values, beliefs, interests, and attitudes.
126
Social behavior - agression
Behavior that is forceful, hostile, or attacking. Aggression is considered something that is intended to cause harm or promote social dominance within a group. Can be communicated verbally or by actions or gestures.
127
Frustration-agression principle.
When someone is blocked from acheiving a goal, this frustration can trigger anger, which can lead to aggression.
128
Social behavior - aggression and root causes. biological?
There are three predictors for aggression: genetic, neural (frontal lobe inhibits aggression while other parts produce agresion_, and biochemical (ex. alcohol)
129
Random mating vs. assortive vs. dissortive
1) all members of a species are equally likely to mate; most diversity
2) assortive - individuals with similar genotypes/phenotype mate
3) dissortive - individuals with more disparate traits mate
130
Inclusive fitness and altruism.
1) Inclusive fitness of an organism is defined by the # of offspring the organism has, how it supports its offspring, and how its offpsring supports others. This theory proposes an organism can improve its overall genetic success through altruistic social behaviors. Altruistic behaviors is one that ensures the success of the rest of the social group, possible at the expense of survival of the individual.
Ex. Squirell comes out and makes a loud noise, alarming family but putting himself at risk becaue of noise.
131
Game theory.
Models used to predict large, complex system, such as overall behavior of a population.
