Problem 2: Biological explanations

Question 1

How do personal capabilities and predispositions influence a person?

Answer 1

They affect how the environment influences the shaping of behavior and, reciprocally, how the behavior can modify biological tendencies.

Question 2

Describe two general trajectories of criminality in youth

Answer 2

The first trajectory is the adolescent-limited, which represents the majority of youths who will engage in delinquent activities at some point during adolescence but desist in early adulthood.

The second trajectory is called the life-course-persistent. These are the offenders, mostly males, who start behaving antisocially early and continue through to adulthood, often escalating in the seriousness of their acts.

Question 3

What is heredity?

Answer 3

Heredity is the transmission of genetic information from one generation to the next.

Question 4

Is there evidence of intergenerational criminality?

Answer 4

There is a high correlation between the fathers criminality and the sons criminality. This applies equally to boys and girls.

Question 5

What is also of influence in the transmission of crime from parent to child?

Answer 5

Other factors such as parental monitoring and disciplining practices, having a father with a poor work record, and living in poor housing are also important. Official police and court processing may also be of influence.

Question 6

How can ‘assertive mating’ explain the transmission of crime from parent to child?

Answer 6

83% of boys grew up and married women who also had criminal records.

Family criminality was the best predictor of anti-social behavior for any family member.

When the mother was arrested,the chance of the father having been arrested was five times more likely.

Question 7

What does a higher concordance rate in monozygotic (MZ) twins compared to dizygotic (DZ) twins suggest?

Answer 7

It suggests that heredity has a stronger influence on the trait being studied.

Question 8

What were the concordance rates for criminality found by Lange (1929), and Christiansen (1970), and Dalgaard for MZ and DZ twins?

Answer 8

Lange (1929): MZ twins: 77% concordance & DZ twins: 12% concordance

Christiansen (1970): 35% for MZ twins, 12% for DZ twins.

Dalgaard: 26% for MZ twins.

Question 9

What is the equal environments assumption in twin studies?

Answer 9

The assumption that identical twins (MZ) and fraternal twins (DZ) experience similar environments, so differences in concordance rates are primarily due to genetics.

Question 10

What did Grove et al. (1990) find about MZ twins raised apart and antisocial personality disorder?

Answer 10

They found a 29% concordance rate for antisocial personality disorder, consistent with other twin studies on crime.

Question 11

What is the discordant MZ-twin method, and what does it aim to uncover?

Answer 11

It assumes MZ twins raised together do not share exactly the same environments. This method helps identify potential specific environmental causes, holding genetics constant.

Question 12

In Caspi et al. (2004), what did researchers conclude about the role of maternal treatment in child aggression?

Answer 12

Negative maternal emotions strongly predicted child aggression, suggesting that maternal treatment, not genetics, explained child aggressiveness.

Question 13

What factors are analyzed in adoption studies on criminal behavior?

Answer 13

Adoption studies analyze:
(a) The criminal history of biological parents.
(b) The criminal history of adoptive parents.
(c) Combinations of criminality in biological and adoptive parents.

Question 14

What did a study of over 14,000 adoptees in Denmark (1924-1947) reveal about genetic influences on criminality?

Answer 14

Adoptees with criminal biological parents raised by noncriminal adoptive parents had a conviction rate of 20%, compared to 13.5% for those with noncriminal biological and adoptive parents.

This suggests a modest genetic influence on criminal behavior (effect size: 0.03).

Question 15

How does heritability of behavioral issues vary with severity?

Answer 15

Severe behavioral problems (e.g., major depression, antisocial behavior) have a stronger genetic component.

Life-course-persistent offenders show heritability of up to 70%, compared to 35% for adolescence-limited offenders.

Question 16

What differences in heritability were observed between genders in severe antisocial behavior?

Answer 16

Females with life-course-persistent offending showed stronger genetic influences compared to males.

Question 17

What did Harden et al. (2008) and Armour and Haynie (2007) find about early sexual activity and delinquency?

Answer 17

Contrary to prior research, Harden et al. found that early sexual activity was associated with lower delinquency, highlighting the complexity of the relationship.

Armour and Haynie (2007) noted that early sexual debut increased the risk of delinquency by 20%, though causation remains unclear.

Question 18

What are the 2 levels in which the nature-nurture interaction can proceed?

Answer 18

There is the molecular genetic level

There is a higher level of the behavioral markers representing the biological systems that underlie criminal conduct.

Question 19

What does the MAOA gene do?

Answer 19

School attachment and repeating a grade, both risk factors for delinquency, interact with the MAOA gene.

The MAOA gene is widely regarded to influence aggression via serotonin and dopamine neurotransmission.

Question 20

Give 5 biological markers indicative of biological system processes that may interact with environmental factors:

Answer 20

• Sensation seeking
• High energy
• Low self-control
• Emotionality
• Callousness

Question 21

What did Lombroso conclude about criminals after observing a convict’s brain?

Answer 21

1. Criminals biologically resemble lower-order animals.
2. They behave like animals with few inhibitions, as “biological throwbacks” to an earlier evolutionary stage.
3. Some criminals are “born bad.”

Question 22

What is the limbic system, and why is it called the “old brain”?

Answer 22

The limbic system is a brain circuit controlling basic emotions and motivations. It is called the “old brain” because it developed early in evolution and is similar to structures in lower-level animals.

Question 23

What did Charles Goring’s (1913) and Hooten (1939) study reveal about the physical differences between convicts and non-convicts?

Answer 23

Goring found no significant physical differences between 3,000 English convicts and groups of university students, hospital patients, and soldiers.

Hooten found differences in 19 of 33 physical characteristics, with criminals having low foreheads, protruding ears, and being generally physically inferior.

Question 24

What is plasticity, and how does it affect the brain?

Answer 24

Plasticity is the brain’s ability to adapt, with neurons assuming the functions of damaged areas. The brain is more plastic during youth than adulthood.

Question 25

What are William Sheldon’s three body types, and how do they relate to delinquency?

Answer 25

1. Ectomorph: Thin and fragile. 2. Endomorph: Overweight and round. 3. Mesomorph: Muscular and athletic. The Gluecks (1950) found that delinquents were more likely to be mesomorphs.

Question 26

How do the limbic system and the prefrontal cortex interact in violent behavior?

Answer 26

Violent behavior depends on processes in both the limbic system (emotions and motivations) and the prefrontal cortex (impulse control and executive functioning). The limbic system (and amygdala) act as the gas pedal and the pfc acts as the brakes. If one doesn’t function as they should, things van go wrong

Question 27

What racial differences did Rushton and Jensen propose regarding intelligence and behavior?

Answer 27

They argued that: 1. Asians are the most advanced in intelligence, temperament, and social organization. 2. Caucasians are intermediate. 3. Blacks are the least advanced. Note: This theory is highly controversial and criticized for its lack of scientific validity and its racial bias

Question 28

What is the role of the frontal lobes in behavior?

Answer 28

The frontal lobes are responsible for attention, planning, impulse control, and executive functioning. Development continues until around age 25, influencing the “age-crime curve.”

Question 29

What is the “cad” strategy in evolutionary criminology?

Answer 29

The “cad” strategy refers to men using deceitful or aggressive tactics to reproduce while avoiding paternal responsibilities, in contrast to “dads” who commit to monogamy and child-rearing.

Question 30

How are frontal lobes different in white-collar criminals compared to other criminals?

Answer 30

White-collar criminals tend to have greater gray matter thickness in their frontal lobes compared to average criminals.

Question 31

What are the two main types of life-course-persistent offenders?

Answer 31

1. Moffitt’s neuropsychological type: Individuals with neuropsychological problems, difficult temperaments, and poor socialization experiences. 2. Psychopaths: Individuals pursuing a strategic “life history” to maximize mating success without significant neuropsychological deficits.

Question 32

What are the traits of a difficult temperament in a child?

Answer 32

1. Intense reactions to stimuli. 2. Generally negative mood. 3. Slowness to adapt to change. 4. Irregularity in sleep, hunger, and other bodily functions.

Question 33

What is passive avoidance learning, and how does it teach self-control?

Answer 33

Passive avoidance learning teaches self-control through fear reduction: 1. Antisocial behavior is punished, producing fear. 2. Fear discourages the behavior, and its reduction reinforces inhibition.

Question 34

What is the “age-crime curve”, and how is it linked to brain development?

Answer 34

The age-crime curve shows that antisocial behaviors peak in late adolescence and decline in early adulthood. This pattern is linked to delayed development of the frontal lobes.

Question 35

How do criminals differ from noncriminals in reproductive behavior?

Answer 35

Criminals tend to: - Begin sexual activity earlier. - Have children earlier. - Have more sexual partners.

Question 36

What did the Dunedin Study reveal about neuropsychological tests and delinquency?

Answer 36

Poor neuropsychological test performance, especially in verbal abilities, predicted delinquency at age 18. This was most strongly associated with life-course-persistent male delinquents but not with adolescent-limited delinquents.

Question 37

What is the outcome of criminals mating with partners with similar temperaments and social backgrounds?

Answer 37

They experience higher levels of failed intimate partnerships, poorer health, and higher mortality rates.

Question 38

What does Moffitt’s biosocial model suggest about chronic criminality?

Answer 38

Chronic criminality arises from a combination of: - Biological factors: Neuropsychological deficits (poor verbal skills, impulsiveness). - Psychosocial factors: Negative environments that amplify these biological risks.

Question 39

Do biological factors directly cause crime?

Answer 39

No, biological factors do not directly cause crime but can increase the likelihood of antisocial behavior, especially in adverse environmental conditions.

Question 40

How do neuropsychological deficits contribute to life-course-persistent offending?

Answer 40

Deficits like poor verbal skills, impulsiveness, and attention issues increase the likelihood of persistent offending, especially when combined with adverse social environments.

Question 41

What are the four main areas where neurobiology plays a role in criminology?

Answer 41

1. Understanding criminal behavior. 2. Early detection, prediction, and intervention in deviant behavior. 3. Criminal proceedings: assessing responsibility and informing sentencing. 4. Forensic rehabilitation and treatment.

Question 42

Why is the maturity gap important in understanding adolescent behavior?

Answer 42

The maturity gap occurs because adolescents desire adult status but lack full neurophysiological maturity, contributing to impulsive and antisocial behaviors.

Question 43

What percentage of variance in criminal behavior is attributed to genetic influences?

Answer 43

About 40–60% of the variance in criminal behavior is attributed to genetic influences.

Question 44

How do biological predispositions and environmental factors interact?

Answer 44

Biological predispositions influence how individuals react to the environment, while environmental factors can affect gene expression, hormone and neurotransmitter levels, and brain structure and functioning.

Question 45

What does neurobiological research aim to achieve in criminology?

Answer 45

1. Understand the neurobiological characteristics of antisocial behavior. 2. Predict antisocial behavior using neurobiological risk factors. 3. Study interactions between neurobiological, psychological, and environmental factors.

Question 46

What is temperament, and how is it related to personality?

Answer 46

Temperament refers to inherent and stable tendencies to respond to the environment. It is the biological precursor to personality and explains the heritability of personality.

Question 47

What ethical concerns arise with neurobiological approaches to predicting and intervening in deviant behavior?

Answer 47

1. Stigmatization of individuals labeled as “at-risk.” 2. Risk of false positives leading to unnecessary interventions. 3. Negative impacts on self-esteem and treatment outcomes. 4. Questions about decision-making autonomy for children labeled as at-risk.

Question 48

What are the two interrelated temperamental traits linked to delinquency and life-course-persistent offenders?

Answer 48

1. High stimulation-seeking combined with low self-control. 2. Negative emotionality, which includes facets like aggression, alienation, and stress reactions.

Question 49

What is “neuro-determinism,” and why is it a concern?

Answer 49

“Neuro-determinism” is the belief that biological factors alone drive behavior. It risks fostering false assumptions, stigmatization, and reliance on “quick fixes” while overlooking psychological and socio-economic factors.

Question 50

What is a “poorness of fit,” and how does it contribute to behavioral problems?

Answer 50

A poorness of fit occurs when a child’s difficult temperament mismatches with caregivers’ or teachers’ approaches, leading to exacerbated behavioral problems.

Question 51

How does neurophysiological underarousal contribute to sensation-seeking and criminal behavior?

Answer 51

Individuals with low baseline arousal may seek stimulation to “wake up” their systems, predisposing them to risky and criminal behaviors, especially when combined with low self-control.

Question 52

What are the risks of over-reliance on neurobiological evidence in court?

Answer 52

1. Fostering “neuro-determinism.” 2. Overestimating its accuracy in proving reduced responsibility or dangerousness. 3. Misinterpretation leading to biased sentencing outcomes.

Question 53

How can forensic mental health interventions benefit from neurobiological insights?

Answer 53

1. Accurate diagnostics can guide treatment to reduce recidivism. 2. Non-invasive neuro-interventions (e.g., neurofeedback, transcranial magnetic stimulation) show promise. 3. Combining biological and psychological approaches ensures balanced rehabilitation.

Question 54

Why do individuals with antisocial personalities struggle with learning self-control?

Answer 54

They often exhibit reduced fear responses and slower dissipation of physiological fear markers, impairing their ability to learn from punishment.

Question 55

What risks are associated with emphasizing biological determinism in offender treatment?

Answer 55

1. Increased stigma and harmful stereotypes. 2. Lower patient motivation for recovery. 3. Viewing disorders as untreatable or permanent, which can hinder outcomes.

Question 56

How do sensation-seeking tendencies differ between offenders and non-offenders?

Answer 56

Offenders tend to score higher on sensation-seeking measures and often report feeling a “rush” from engaging in criminal acts.

Question 57

What is the neurophysiological arousal hypothesis in relation to crime?

Answer 57

It suggests that some offenders engage in criminal acts for the sensation-seeking thrill, due to their underactive neurophysiological systems.

Question 58

What is antisocial behavior (AB), and why is it significant?

Answer 58

Antisocial behavior includes aggression, violence, and rule-breaking, with significant financial, social, and emotional costs to society, perpetrators, victims, and their families.

Question 59

What is callous-unemotional (CU)?

Answer 59

Callous-unemotional traits (CU) are distinguished by a persistent pattern of behavior that reflects a disregard for others, and also a lack of empathy and generally deficient affect.

Question 60

How does heterogeneity manifest in youth with antisocial behavior?

Answer 60

Youth with AB differ in onset, duration, and severity of behavior. Subtypes include: 1. Early-onset AB (greater genetic risk). 2. Adolescent-onset AB (less severe trajectory). 3. AB with callous-unemotional (CU) traits, linked to higher levels of AB.

Question 61

How does the heritability of aggression differ from rule-breaking?

Answer 61

Aggression: More heritable (65%) with less environmental influence (5%). Rule-breaking: Less heritable (48%) with greater environmental influence (18%).

Question 62

What are the genetic heritability differences for AB with and without CU traits?

Answer 62

AB with CU traits: 81% heritable. AB without CU traits: 30% heritable.

Question 63

What findings have adoption studies revealed about AB?

Answer 63

1. Severe AB in biological parents predicts greater CU traits in children. 2. Positive parenting by adoptive parents reduces CU traits.

Question 64

What neurotransmitter systems are often studied in relation to AB?

Answer 64

1. Dopaminergic system: Altered dopamine levels may contribute to heightened reward sensitivity. 2. Serotonergic system: Greater serotonin is linked to poor impulse control and irritability.

Question 65

Which genes are associated with AB in molecular genetic studies?

Answer 65

1. Dopaminergic genes: Linked to reward sensitivity and AB. 2. Serotonin transporter polymorphism: Short allele linked to AB. 3. Monoamine oxidase-A (MAOA) gene: Involved in serotonin breakdown, linked to AB.

Question 66

What is a gene-environment (GxE) interaction, and how does it relate to AB?

Answer 66

In a GxE interaction, genetic variation predicts AB only in specific environmental contexts. For example, genetic predispositions may only lead to AB under adverse environmental conditions.

Question 67

What is the goal of genome-wide association studies (GWAS) in the context of AB?

Answer 67

GWAS examines whether individual differences in AB are associated with allelic differences across the genome. However, detecting genetic effects requires large sample sizes due to the small effect size of individual genetic variants.

Question 68

What brain regions are implicated in AB, and how do they function?

Answer 68

1. Amygdala: Linked to heightened fear responses. 2. Prefrontal cortex: Associated with disinhibition and impulse control. 3. Striatum: Tied to reward sensitivity. AB is often marked by heightened amygdala activity, lower prefrontal activation, and reduced amygdala-prefrontal connectivity.

Question 69

What disorders are associated with aggression?

Answer 69

- **Intermittent Explosive Disorder (IED)** - characterized by frequent and problematic impulsive aggressive outbursts. - **Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD)** - characterized by instability in self-image, in interpersonal relationships as well as impulsivity and affect . - **Antisocial Personality Disorder (AsDP)** - characterized by a pattern of disregard for, and violation of, the rights of others.

Question 70

What is serotonin (5-HT), and what functions does it regulate?

Answer 70

Serotonin is a monoamine neurotransmitter derived from L-tryptophan, regulating mood, appetite, sleep, gastrointestinal muscle contractility, and self-injurious behavior.

Question 71

What factors influence serotonin’s action in the brain?

Answer 71

1. The specific receptor subtype it binds to. 2. The amount of 5-HT available in the synapse. 3. The level of enzymatic activity. 4. Availability of agonists or antagonists for competitive binding.

Question 72

How is serotonin linked to impulsive aggression?

Answer 72

Low serotonin levels in emotion-regulating brain regions (e.g., prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex) predispose individuals to impulsive aggression. Reduced serotonin metabolites (e.g., 5-HIAA in CSF) are associated with violent and suicidal behaviors.

Question 73

What did early studies (1976–1979) reveal about serotonin and aggression?

Answer 73

1. Sheard et al.: Lithium carbonate (serotonin-enhancing agent) reduced impulsive aggression in prison inmates. 2. Asberg et al.: Lower 5-HIAA levels in CSF correlated with violent and suicidal behaviors. 3. Brown et al.: Found a strong inverse relationship between 5-HIAA levels and aggression, with MHPG levels positively linked to aggression.

Question 74

What role do serotonin receptors play in aggression regulation?

Answer 74

1. 5-HT1a receptor agonists: Typically reduce aggression, though effects vary by brain region. 2. 5-HT1b receptor agonists: Can increase aggression under specific conditions. 3. 5-HT2a and 5-HT2c receptor activation: Generally reduces aggression, especially in the mesocorticolimbic pathway. 4. 5-HT transporters: Activation reduces pathological aggression.

Question 75

How does serotonin interact with dopamine in aggression?

Answer 75

* Low serotonin levels are linked to dopaminergic hyperactivity, particularly in the prefrontal cortex. * This imbalance may drive impulsive aggression. * Studies show elevated dopamine in the nucleus accumbens and reduced serotonin in the frontal cortex during aggression.

Question 76

Does serotonin increase or decrease aggression?

Answer 76

* Serotonin generally decreases aggression by modulating emotion-regulating brain regions. * Low serotonin availability or function leads to impulsive and violent behaviors.

Question 77

What is the significance of serotonin metabolites like 5-HIAA in aggression?

Answer 77

Lower 5-HIAA levels in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) are strongly correlated with violent, suicidal, and aggressive behaviors.

Question 78

What is dopamine (DA), and what are its primary functions?

Answer 78

Dopamine is a catecholamine neurotransmitter involved in cognition, movement, sleep, mood, attention, learning and memory, and reward pathways related to behaviors like drug use, eating, and sexual activity.

Question 79

How does dopamine influence aggressive behavior?

Answer 79

* Increased DA activity, particularly in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) and anterior hypothalamus (AH), is associated with greater aggression. * Dopamine receptor antagonists targeting these areas reduce aggression, indicating DA’s role in modulating aggressive behaviors.

Question 80

How does dopamine receptor activity in the anterior hypothalamus (AH) influence aggression?

Answer 80

* D2-like receptor antagonists in the AH suppress aggression without affecting mobility or sociability. * D5 receptors in the lateral AH may modulate aggression through non-GABAergic pathways.

Question 81

What is the significance of dopamine receptor antagonists in aggression studies?

Answer 81

Dopamine receptor antagonists targeting D1-like and D2-like receptors reduce aggression, providing evidence that heightened dopaminergic activity contributes to aggressive behaviors.

Question 82

What is norepinephrine (NE), and what are its primary functions?

Answer 82

NE is a catecholamine neurotransmitter and stress hormone involved in the “fight-or-flight” response, modulating physiological reactions like heart rate and glucose release, as well as aggression and stress responses.

Question 83

How does norepinephrine (NE) affect aggression?

Answer 83

Low NE levels are linked to increased aggression. High NE levels are associated with reduced aggression, especially in certain treatment contexts.

Question 84

How does norepinephrine (NE) modulate aggression in humans?

Answer 84

Patients with schizophrenia treated with clozapine (which increases NE levels) exhibited reduced aggression compared to those treated with other antipsychotic drugs. This suggests NE helps modulate aggression in clinical context

Question 85

How does norepinephrine (NE) interact with other neurotransmitter systems?

Answer 85

NE interacts with systems like serotonin, influencing aggression in complex ways: * Decreased NE activity can lead to depression and self-directed aggression. * Increased NE activity can cause irritability and violent aggression in some cases.

Question 86

What is Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), and what is its primary function?

Answer 86

GABA is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system (CNS). It regulates neurological function by reducing neuronal activity, often producing calming effects.

Question 87

How does GABA influence aggression in animal studies?

Answer 87

1. Increased GABA levels (e.g., in GAT1−/− mice) are linked to reduced aggression. 2. GABA(B) receptor activation in the dorsal raphe nucleus increases aggression by modulating serotonin. 3. GABA(A) receptor activation, particularly in alcohol-treated mice, has been linked to heightened aggression, especially in alcohol-induced scenarios.

Question 88

What do human studies suggest about GABA’s role in aggression?

Answer 88

1. Higher cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) GABA levels are linked to impulsivity but not directly to aggression. 2. Reduced GABA(B) receptor activity correlates with increased impulsivity, a trait often linked to aggression.

Question 89

Does GABA increase or decrease aggression?

Answer 89

GABA generally decreases aggression due to its inhibitory role in the CNS. However, the effect varies by receptor subtype (e.g., GABA(A), GABA(B)) and brain region, with some GABA receptor activation increasing aggression (e.g., in the dorsal raphe nucleus).

Question 90

How does GABAergic dysfunction affect aggression in the anterior hypothalamus (AH)?

Answer 90

Reduced GABAergic inhibition in the anterior hypothalamus, often influenced by dopamine D2 receptor activity, is associated with increased aggression.

Question 91

Why is GABA’s role in aggression considered context-dependent?

Answer 91

GABA’s effects on aggression depend on: 1. Receptor subtype (e.g., GABA(A), GABA(B)). 2. Brain region (e.g., dorsal raphe nucleus, anterior hypothalamus). 3. Interaction with other neurotransmitter systems, like dopamine and serotonin

Question 92

What role does vasopressin play in aggression?

Answer 92

Higher cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) vasopressin levels are positively associated with increased aggression, particularly in males with personality disorders. This relationship persists even after accounting for serotonin function.

Question 93

How is oxytocin linked to aggression?

Answer 93

Lower CSF oxytocin levels are associated with a greater history of aggressive behavior, suggesting an inverse relationship between oxytocin levels and aggression.

Question 94

What effect do opioids have on aggression?

Answer 94

Elevated opioid activity is linked to increased aggression. Mu opioid receptor density is higher in violent suicide victims, and opioid administration in healthy subjects increases aggression. Opioid antagonists like naltrexone reduce self-injurious behaviors, supporting opioids’ role in aggression modulation.