problem solving and intelligence

Question 1

Describe problem solving as a process of search

Answer 1

As though you were navigating through a maze, seeking a path towards your goal

Question 2

What are the hill-climbing and means-end analysis heuristics?

Answer 2

imagine you are hiking through the woods and trying to figure out which trail leads to the mountaintop. you obviously needs to climb uphill to reach the top so whenever you come to a fork in the trail you select the path that goes up, same with the problem solving stratergy, you choose the path that gets you closer to your goal. though this doesnt work for ever situation, sometime you need to move backwards to move forward.
people have other heuristics avalable, means-end analysis. in this stratergy you compare your current state to the goal state and you ask “what means do i have to make these more alike?

Question 3

When is it useful to use pictures and diagrams to solve problems?

Answer 3

sometimes it is useful to translate a problem into concrete terms, relying one mental image or a picture. instead of using an algebraic solution..

Question 4

Describe problem solving by analogy using the tumour problem as an example

Answer 4

you solve problems by means of analogy with other, already solved, problems.
the hint from the other problem gave an alternative idea. simular concept in a differnt way. pg 505 if want to go over again
tumor and the dictator

Question 5

What strategies help people to use analogies?

Answer 5

uninstructed use of analogies are rare (when people werent told the dictator was relevant to the tumor on 30% solved it). to locate helpful analogies in memory, you generally need to look beyond the superficial features of a problem (instead of just thinking about everything that related to a tumor). focus on the problems “deep structure” that the situation of the fortress and the tumor are the same.
this mapping can be very difficult and failures to figure out the mapping are another reason people regularly fail and use analogies.
stratergies;
-pay attention to the deeper structure then the superficial traits
-can improve problem solving by be encouraging people to pay attention to the underlying dynamic.

Question 6

Why are experts better problem solvers than novices?

Answer 6

eg novices thought about the superficial elements to solve the problem whereas the experts thought about the physical principals involves with solving the problem. they focused on the deep structure of the problem, therefore they are also more likely to use analogies.
experts also break down the problem, into subproblems, so that the overall problem can be solved part by part rather then all at once.

Question 7

What are ill-defined and well-defined problems?

Answer 7

ill-defined- with no clear statement at the outset of how the goal should be characterized or what operations might serve to reach that goal; such as “have good time on vacation” or “ saving money for collage” -to make it well-defined can add some structure to the problem by including constraints or extra assumptions, narrow set of options of how to approach it.

Question 8

What is functional fixedness and how does it affect problem solving?

Answer 8

the tendency to be ridged about how one thinks about object’s functions. the tacks on a box, matches and candle problem. solving it depends on how you represent the box in your thoughts.

Question 9

What are the costs and benefits of having a problem solving set?

Answer 9

problem solving set is- the collection of beliefs and assumptions a person makes about a problem. if guided by mistaken belief, problems become harder ( as assumptions are made that are not correct), to find a solution they need to change the set (of assumptions)
-they can be beneficial though as many problems have many many solutions and therefore the set can help to narrow down the options, which in turn eases the search for solutions.

Question 10

What have case studies of creativity told us about the common elements?

Answer 10

common elements;

• have great knowledge and skill in their domain (they are good at what they do)
• personality traits: willingness to take a risk, willingness to ignore criticism, ability to tolerate ambiguous findings or situations and an inclination to not follow the crowd.
• they also seem to be highly motivated by the pleasure of their work rather then the promise of external rewards. they tend to work extremely hard on their endeavors and to produce a lot of product.
• these highly creative people have generally been “in the right place at the right time” that is in environments that allow them freedom, provide appropriate supports and available resources.

Question 11

What are Wallas’ four stages of creative thought and is there any empirical evidence for them?

Answer 11

1.preperation; the problem solver gathers information and does some work on the problem, but with little progress.
2.incubation; the problem solver sets the problem aside and seems not to be working on it. Wallas did argue though that the problem was still being worked on unconsciously, so the solutions is being worked on unseen.
3illumination, in which a key insight or new idea emerges.
4. verification, in which the person confirms that the new idea really does lead to a solution and works out the details.
however, historical evidence suggest that many creative discoveries dont include these steps or if they do they include these step in a complex, back and forth sequence.

Question 12

What is the “intelligence quotient”?

Answer 12

originally it was a test score of ones mental age (the score on the intelligence test) to their chronological age. this was the multiplyed to get the ration or “intelligence quotient”

Question 13

Give an example of a modern IQ test

Answer 13

the Wechsler Intellegence scale for children/ Wechsler intelligence scale for adults. it measures general knowledge, vocabulary and comprehension, perceptual and reasoning scale, working memory and speed of intellectual processing.

Question 14

Why are IQ tests considered to be reliable and valid?

Answer 14

reliable, is consistent from one occasion to another, they have strong test-retest reliability. eg an high corrilation between measurements of someones IQ at age 6 and measurements of IQ when 18.
-though IQ can change, especially if their is a change in the persons environment
validity; the test does measure what it is meant to measure, someone’s test scores should enable us to predict how well they will do in a setting that requires that intelligence.
Higher IQ has been positively linked with better academic performance, careers, less likely to end up in jail or become pregnant as teens.
-note; IQ scores are never a perfect predictor of life outcomes.

Question 15

What is general intelligence (g)?

Answer 15

a capacity that provides an advantage on virtually any mental task.
authors argue though that these no such thing as general intelligence , claiming each person has a collection of more specific talents and so you might be math smart but not strong with language etc.

but is does appear that there is some sort of general capacity that is useful for all mental endeavors, but there are also various forms of more specialized intelligence.

Question 16

What is the difference between fluid and crystallised intelligence?

Answer 16

fluid intelligence- is the ability to deal with novel problems, it is the form of intelligence you need when you have no well-practiced routines you can bring to bear on a problem.
crystallized intelligence, involves you acquired knowledge, including you verbal knowledge and you repertoire of skills, skills useful for dealing with problems similar to those already encountered.
these are highly correlated, if you have a lot of one then you have a lot of the other.

Question 17

What are the two proposals that describe what g is?

Answer 17

• that mental processes are quick but do take time, and perhaps the people we consider intelligent are those who are especially fast in these processes. a variant of this is faster processing, not throughout the brain but in particular neural pathways.
• working memory capacity (WMC), measure of executive control, how well people can monitor and direct their own thought processes. people with a larger WMC do better on many intellectual task. therefore, perhaps people who we think are intelligent literally have better control over their own thoughts, so they can coordinate their prioritoes in an approprite manner when making judgements or solving problems.

Question 18

What is practical intelligence? What is emotional intelligence?

Answer 18

practical intelligence is when we think of “street smart” that is capable of sophisticated reasoning in day-to-day settings- even though they seem to lack the sort of analytical skill needed in the classroom.

emotional intelligence-the ability to understand one`s own emotions and others’, as well as the ability to control one’s emotions when appropriate. These people high in emotional intelligence are predicted to create a more positive atmosphere in the workplace and have more leadership potential.

Question 19

Why should we consider other, non-traditional types of intelligence?

Answer 19

Garder`s theory of multiple intelligence, argues their are 8 types of intelligence. their are examples of people with so-called savant syndrome, they score extremely low in some aspect of intelligence but then extremely high in other areas, some with a stunning level of sophisticated talent.

Question 20

How do we know that there are genetic influences in determining intelligence?

Answer 20

from twin studies with 100% DNA matching tend to resemble each other in intelligence, whether they were raised together or not. twins that share 50% of DNA show less resemblances but some resemblances then non-twin siblings or random.

Question 21

How do we know that there are environmental influences in determining intelligence?

Answer 21

know from research that living in poverty impedes intellectual development, and the effect in cumulative; the longer the child remains in such an environment, the greater the harm.
however, improving the environment can increase IQ. children living in high risk environments, that werer removed at put in foster care improved their IQ scores.

The Flynn effect; around the globe, scores on intelligence test have been increasing over the last few decades at a rate of approximately 3 points per decade. this worldwide improvement becomes part of the evidence documenting that intelligence can indeed be improved by suitable environmental conditions.

Question 22

How does looking at the impact of poverty inform us about the interaction between genetics and the environment on intelligence?

Answer 22

genetic mechanisms enable someone to make full use of the “environmental inputs that support intellectual growth”. if their is rich fabric of these inputs the genetic mechanisms enable the person to gain from them and flourish, but is there inputs are absent, the genetic mechanisms have nothing to work with- they produce little growth.

Question 23

What are the explanations for the differences in IQ scores found between Caucasian Americans and African Americans?

Answer 23

economic- they do not have the same opportunities, on average African Americans have lower incomes, less access to health care, poorer nutrition etc. these environmental impacts influence IQ scores.
they are also often treated differently and have different role models and different assumptions about what life paths will be open to them. Stereotype threat, a term that describes the negative impact that social stereotypes, once activated, can have on task performance.