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HUBS 191 > PROGRESS TEST 2! > Flashcards

PROGRESS TEST 2! Flashcards

1
Q

THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS) CONSISTS OF:

A

BRAIN (neurons & glia) + SPINAL CORD (neuron & glia)

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2
Q

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS) CONSISTS OF:

A

PERIPHERAL NERVES & GANGLIA (neurons & glia)

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3
Q

NEURONS (NERVE CELLS)

A
  1. CELLS SPECIALISED FOR TRANSMISSION OF INFO
  2. FOUR MORPHOLOGICAL TYPES
  3. STRUCTURAL COMPONENT ( DENDRITES > CELL BODY > AXON > AXON TERMINALS)
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4
Q

ROLE OF DENDRITES:

A
  • RECIEVE INPUT

- SEND INFORMATION TO THE CELL BODY

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5
Q

ROLE OF THE CELL BODY:

A
  • CONTAINS NUCLEUS & ORGANELLE

- SUMS THE INPUT

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6
Q

ROLE OF AXON:

A
  • CARRIES ELECTRICAL IMPULSES

- MAY OR MAY NOT BE MYELINATED

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7
Q

AXON TERMINALS:

A
  • END OF THE AXON

- NEUROTRANSMITTER RELEASE

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8
Q

GLIA:

A
  1. SUPPORT FOR NEURONS
  2. FIVE BASIC TYPES a) 4 IN CNS b) 1 IN THE PNS
  3. EACH TYPE HAS A SPECIFIC FUNCTION.
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9
Q

IN THE CNS:

  1. A GROUP OF CELL BODIES = ?
  2. A BUNDLE OF AXON = ?
  3. GROUP OF CELL BODIES IN CEREBRAL CORTEX = ?
  4. BUNDLE OF AXONS IN CEREBRAL CORTEX = ?
A
  1. = NUCLEUS
  2. = TRACT
  3. = GREY MATTER
  4. = WHITE MATTER
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10
Q

IN THE PNS:

  1. A GROUP OF CELL BODIES = ?
  2. BUNDLE OF ZONS = ?
A
  1. = GANGLION

2. = NERVE

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11
Q

INPUT ZONE:

A

DENDRITES & CELL BODY

- RECEIVES CHEMICAL SIGNALS FROM OTHER NEURONS

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12
Q

SUMATION ZONE:

A

AXON HILLOCK

- SUMMATION OF INPUTS

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13
Q

CONDUCTION ZONE:

A

AXON, MAY BE QUIET LONG
- CARRY ELECTRICAL SIGNALS BETWEEN BRAIN AREAS, TO & FROM SPINAL CORD OR FROM PERIPHERAL SENSORY RECEPTORS AND TO EFFECTOR CELLS.

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14
Q

OUTPUT ZONE:

A

AXON TERMINALS

  • CONTACT WITH INPUT ZONE OF OTHER NEURONS OR EFFECTORS
  • RELEASE OF NEUROTRANSMITTER.
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15
Q

4 MORPHOLOGICAL TYPES OF NEURONS

A
  1. MULTIPOLAR (multiple processes emanate from the cell body)
  2. BIPOLAR (two processes emanate from the cell body)
  3. UNIPOLAR (one process emanates from the cell body - then branches into dendrite & axon)
  4. ANOXIC (axones - no distinct axon & all processes look alike)
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16
Q

TYPES OF GLIAL CELLS FOUND IN THE CNS

A
  1. ASTROCYTES - supply nutrients to neurons - ensheath blood capillaries (injury response)
  2. MICROGLIA - immune cells of the CNS - engulf micro-organisms & debris
  3. EPENDYMAL CELLS - line fluid-filled spaces of brain & spinal cord. - have cilia to circulate CSF
  4. OLIGODENDROCYTES - support nerve fibres - ensheath them with myelin
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17
Q

GLIAL CELL FOUND IN THE PNS

A

SCHWANN CELLS - support peripheral nerve fibres & ensheath them with myelin.
- similar to the oligodendrocytes of the CNS.

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18
Q

MYELIN SHEATH - BASIC STRUCTURE:

A

MULTIPLE SCHWANN CELLS IN A LINE.

NODES OF RAINIVER = GAPS BETWEEN MYELIN - THESE INCREASE CONDUCTION VELOCITY

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19
Q

WHAT IS A SYNAPSE?

A

A JUNCTION THAT HELPS WITH COMMUNICATION BETWEEN NEURONS

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20
Q

WHAT IS AFFERENT INFORMATION

A

INFORMATION THAT GOES INTO THE BRAIN (ASCENDING)

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21
Q

WHAT IS EFFERENT INFORMATION?

A

RESPONSE THAT COMES OUT OF THE BRAIN (DESCENDING)

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22
Q

WHAT IS SOMATIC INFORMATION:

A

THE STUFF WE ARE AWARE OF, AND HAVE CONTROL OVER

  • VOLUNTARY MUSCLE CONTROL (SOMATIC EFFERENT - MOTOR)
  • SENSORY INFORMATION THAT WE’RE AWARE OF (SOMATIC AFFERENT - SENSORY)
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23
Q

WHAT IS AUTONOMIC INFORMATION:

A

THE STUDD WE’RE NOT AWARE OF, HAVE NO CONTROL OVER.

  • INVOLUNTARY MUSCLE CONTROL (AUTONOMIC EFFERENT - MOTOR)
  • SENSORY INFO THAT WE DON’T KNOW ABOUT (AUTONOMIC AFFERENT - SENSORY)
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24
Q

SOMATIC EFFERENT DIVISION - THE TWO NEURONS BETWEEN BRAIN & EFFECTOR:

A
  1. UPPER MOTOR NEURON

2. LOWER MOTOR NEURON

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25
Q

UPPER MOTOR NEURON..?

A

CELL BODY IN BRAIN.
AXON IN SPINAL CORD
AXON IS MYELINATED

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26
Q

LOWER MOTOR NEURON..?

A

CELL BODY IN SPINAL CORD
AXON IN SPINAL NERVE
AXON IS MYELINATED

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27
Q

NEUROTRANSMITTER AT THE SYNAPTIC CLEFT?

A

ACETYLCHOLINE (Ach)

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28
Q

SOMATIC EFFERENT DIVISION SUMMARY:

A
  • VOLUNTARY MOVEMENT
  • 2 NEURONS BETWEEN BRAIN & EFFECTOR (UPPER & LOWER MOTOR NEURON)
  • AXONS ARE MYELINATED
  • NEUROTRANSMITTER = ACETYLCHOLINE (Ach)
  • EFFECTOR = SKELETAL MUSCLE
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29
Q

AUTONOMIC EFFERENT NERVOUS SYSTEM:

A
  • INVOLUNTARY CONTROL
  • TWO DIVISIONS - SYMPATHETIC & PARASYMPATHETIC
  • EFFECTORS = SMOOTH MUSCLE, CARDIAC MUSCLE, GLANDS & ADIPOSE (FAT) TISSUE
  • 3 NEURONS BETWEEN BRAIN & EFFECTOR
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30
Q

NEURON #1:

A
  • CELL BODY IN VRAIN

- AXON IN BRAIN OR SPINAL CORD (CNS)

31
Q

NEURON #2

A
  • CELL BODY IN BRAIN/SPINAL CORD
  • AXON EXTENDS IN PNS
  • MYELINATED
  • SYNAPSE IN AUTONOMIC GANGLION
  • PRE-GANGLIONIC NEURON
  • NEUROTRANSMITTER = ACETYLCHOLINE (Ach)
32
Q

NEURON #3

A
  • CELL BODY IN PNS, AUTONOMIC GANGLION
  • AXON EXTENDS ON PNS, TO EFFECTOR ORGAN
  • UNMYLENATED
  • SYNAPSE ON EFFECTOR ORGAN
  • POST-GANGLIONIC NEURON
  • NEUROTRANSMITTER = ACETYLCHOLINE (Ach) OR NOREPINEPHERON
33
Q

SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM: NOREPINEPHERON & Ach

A
  • PREPARES BODY FOR ACUTE/STRESS RESPONSES
    > ‘FIGHT OR FLIGHT’ SYSTEM
  • EFFECTS INCLUDE: - INCREASED; HEART RATE, BLOOD FLOW TO MUSCLES, GASTRIC MOBILITY
    - CONSTRICTING BLOOD VESSELS TO SKIN & VISCERA
34
Q

PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM: Ach

A
  • PREPARES BODY FOR RESTFUL SITUATIONS.
    > ‘REST AND DIGEST’ SYSTEM
  • EFFECTS INCLUDE: - DECREASE IN; HEART RATE, GASTRIC MOTILITY, PUPIL SIZE, SALVATION
35
Q

SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM - PRE-GANGLIONIC NEURON:

A
  • CELL BODY IN THORACOLUMBAR LEVELS OF SPINAL CORD (CNS)
  • AXON IS SHORT
  • AXON TERMINALS AND SYNAPSE IN SYMPATHETIC GANGLION
36
Q

SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM - POST-GANGLIONIC NEURON:

A
  • CELL BODY IN SYMPATHETIC GANGLION - SYMPATHETIC CHAIN GANGLIA
  • AXON IS LONG
37
Q

SYMPATHETIC CHAIN GANGLIA:

A
  • FOUND ON EITHER SIDE OF THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN
  • 21 - 23 PAIRS
  • THIS IS THE PLACE WHERE PRE-GANGLIONIC (NEURON #2) AXONS SYNAPSE
    > ONTO POST GANGLIONIC (NEURON #3) INPUT ZONE.
38
Q

PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM - PRE-GANGLIONIC NEURON:

A
  • CELL BODIES IN CRANIAL (BRAINSTEM) AND SACRAL (SPINAL CORD) LEVELS
  • AXON IS LONG
  • AXON TERMINALS & SYNAPSE IN PARASYMPATHETIC GANGLIA (IN OR NEAR EFFECTORS)
39
Q

PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM - POST-GANGLIONIC NEURON:

A
  • CELL BODY IN PARASYMPATHETIC GANGLIA IN OR NEAR THE EFFECTOR ORGANS
  • AXON IS HSORT
40
Q

ACTION POTENTIAL:

A
  • REVERSAL OF TRANS-MEMBRANE VOLTAGE THAT IS COMPLETED IN 2-3 MS
  • INFORMATION IS ENCODED AND TRANSMITTED VIA ELECTRICAL AND CHEMICAL SIGNALLING.
41
Q

RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL:

A

THE ESTABLISHMENT & MAINTENANCE OF A RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL IS AN ESSENTIAL FOUNDATION FOR ELECTRICAL SIGNALLING.
> AT REST, THE INTERCELLULAR SPACE HAS MORE NEGATIVE CHARGE THAN TH EXTRACELLULAR SPACE, CREATING AN ‘ELECTRICAL GRADIENT’ = RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL

42
Q

ION CHANNELS:

A
  • THESE ARE THE REGULATORS OF CHANGES IN MEMBRANE PERMEABILITY
  • PERMIT SELECTIVE PASSAGE OF IONS INTO & OUT OF THE CELL.
  • CAUSED DUE TO THE OPEN OR CLOSED STATE OF SPECIFIC ION CHANNELS (GATING)
  • RESULTS IN CURRENT FLOW AND CHANGE IN TRANSMEMBRANE VOLTAGE.
43
Q

CHEMICALLY GATED ION CHANNELS:

A
  • OPEN AND CLOSE IN RESPONSE TO CHEMICALS
  • Ach BINDS TO IT’S BINDING SITE - OPENS THE ION CHANNEL ALLOWING Na (e.g.) THROUGH
  • CHEMICALLY GATED ION CHANNELS OPEN WHEN THEY BIND SPECIFIC CHEMICALS
    > FOUND MOSTLY ON THE DENDRITES & CELL BODY OF A NEURON. - AREAS WHERE MOST SYNAPTIC COMMUNICATIONS OCCUR.
44
Q

VOLTAGE GATED ION CHANNELS:

A
  • ACTIVATED BY CHANGES IN THE ELECTRICAL MEMBRANE NEAR THE CHANNEL.
  • MEMBRANE POTENTIAL ALTERS THE CONFORMATION OF THE CHANNEL PROTEINS
    > THIS REGULATES THE OPENING & CLOSING.
45
Q

MECHANICALLY GATED ION CHANNELS:

A
  • OPEN IN RESPONSE TO MECHANICAL STIMULI - PHYSICALLY DISTORTS THE NEURONS MEMBRANE SURFACE
  • CONVERTS MECHANICAL STIMULI INTO ELECTRICAL SIGNAL.
  • OPENS DUE TO APPLIED PRESSURE
46
Q

WHERE ARE CHEMICALLY GATED ION CHANNELS FOUND?

A

DENDRITES & CELL BODY OF THE NEURON

47
Q

WHERE ARE VOLTAGE GATED Na+ AND K+ CHANNELS FOUND?

A

AXON OF THE NEURON - ALONG THE AXON .

> (depends on myelinated or un-myelinated)

48
Q

WHERE ARE VOLTAGE GATED Ca2+ CHANNELS FOUND?

A

FOUND N AXON TERMINALS.

49
Q

LOCAL POTENTIALS

A

THE RESULT OF OPENING ION CHANNELS IN A REIGON OF RECEIPT OF CHEMICAL SIGNALS.
- CHANGES IN THE MEMBRANE POTENTIAL THAT CANNOT SPREAD FAR FROM THE SITE OF STIMULATION.

50
Q

DEPOLARIZATION=?

A

ANY SHIFT FROM THE RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL TOWARDS A MORE POSITIVE VALUE.

  • ALSO APPLIES TO CHANGES IN POTENTIAL FROM -70mV TO SMALLER NEGATIVE VALUES (TOWARDS 0mV) AS WELL AS TO MEMBRANE POTENTIALS ABOVE 0mV
  • AS PLASMA MEMBRANE DEPOLARISES, EXTRACELLULAR SODIUM IONS MOVE TOWARDS THE OPEN CHANNELS REPLACING IONS THAT HAVE ENTERED THE CELL.
51
Q

WHAT IS A LOCAL CURRENT?

A

THE MOVEMENT OF POSITIVE CHARGES PARALLEL TO THE INNER & OUTTER SURFACES OF THE MEMBRANE.

52
Q

REPOLARIZATION=?

A

CHEMICAL STIMULUS IS REMOVED, AND THE MEMBRANE RETURNS TO ITS NORMAL RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL AS THE EXCESS SODIUM IONS ARE TRANSPORTED OUT OF THE CYTOSOL.

53
Q

HYPERPOLARIZATION=?

A
  • SHIFT IN THE MEMBRANE POTENTIAL PAST (BELOW) RESTING LEVEL.
54
Q

TWO WAYS THE EFFECTS OF LOCAL POTENTIALS CAN BE SUMMED:

A
  1. TIME - TEMPORAL SUMMATION

2. SPACE - SPATIAL SUMMATION

55
Q

THE AXON HILLOCK / THE INITIAL SEGMENT:

A

POINT WHERE THE AXON JOINS THE NEURON CELL BODY

  • HIGH DENSITY OF VOLTAGE GATED Na CHANNELS
  • WHERE ACTION POTENTIALS ARE GENERATED
56
Q

ACTION POTENTIAL - THRESHOLD

A
  • DEPOLARISING LOCAL POTENTIALS MAY RESULT IN OPENING OF VOLTAE GATED Na CHANNELS
  • THIS DRIVES FURTHER DEPOLARISATION
  • DEPOLARISATION THEN REACHES A POINT AT WHICH LARGE NUMBERS OF CHANNELS OPEN RESULTS IN A SUDDEN LARGE INCREASE IN Na INFLUX = THRESHOLD REACHED
57
Q

THRESHOLD POTENTIAL =?

A

THE MINIMUM POTENTIAL NEEDED IN
ORDER FOR VOLTAGE-GATED CHANNELS TO OPEN
> THESE ARE THE KEY CHANNELS CAUSING THE PROPAGATION OF ACTION POTENTIALS.

58
Q

WHAT IS INITIAL DEPOLARISATION?

A

LOCAL POTENTIALS CAUSE LOCAL DEPOLARISATION FROM SODIUM INFLUX THROUGH LIGAND/CHEMICAL GATED CHANNELS.

59
Q

WHAT IS RAPID DEPOLARISATION?

A

LOCAL DEPOLARISATION CAUSES THRESHOLD TO BE REACHED, AND VOLTAGE GATED SODIUM CHANNELS OPEN CAUSING RAPID DEPOLARISATION TO SPREAD DOWN THE AXON IN A ‘MEXICAN WAVE’ FASHION.

60
Q

WHAT IS REPOLARIZATION?

A

SODIUM CHANNELS CLOSE AT MAXIMUM DEPOLARISATION (+30mV) VOLTAGE GATED K+ CHANNELS OPEN WHICH LET OUT K+, REPOLARIZING THE CELL.

61
Q

WHAT IS HYPERPOLARIZATION?

A

POTASSIUM CHANNELS OVERSHOOT AND THE MEMBRANE POTENTIALS BECOME MORE NEGATIVE THAN THE RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL

62
Q

WHAT IS THE RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL?

A

RESTORED BY THE SODIUM/POTASSIUM AtPase TO AROUND -70mV

63
Q

WHAT IS THE ABSOLUTE REFECTORY PERIOD?

A

THIS IS THE PERIOD WHERE IT IS IMPOSSIBLE TO SEND ANOTHER ACTION POTENTIAL.
THE INACTIVATION GATES OF THE SODIUM CHANNELS LOCK SHUT FOR A TIME AFTER THEY’RE OPENED - SO NO SODIUM WILL PASS THROUGH.
NO SODIUM = NO DEPOLARISATION = NO ACTION POTENTIALS

64
Q

WHAT IS THE RELATIVE REFRACTORY PERIOD?

A

THIS IS THE PERIOD WHERE IT IS REALLY HARD TO SEND AN ACTION POTENTIAL.
- PERIOD OF TIME AFTER THE ABSOLUTE REFRACTORY PERIOD WHEN THE INACTIVATION GATES ARE OPEN AGAIN. HOWEVER THE CELL IS STILL HYPERPOLARIZED AFTER SENDING AN ACTION POTENTIAL - SO IT WILL TAKE EVEN MORE POSITIVE IONS THAN USUAL TO REACH THRESHOLD POTENTIAL.
BIG GRADED POTENTIAL NEEDED FOR ACTION POTENTIAL TO BE GENERATED.

65
Q

WHAT ARE THE 3 WAYS TO INCREASE THE SPEED OF CONDUCTION?

A
  1. SIZE - BIGGER DIAMETER = FASTER
  2. SHEATH - MYELINATED = FASTER (INSULATION PREVENTS LOSS OF IONS
  3. SALTATORY CONDUCTION - NODES OF RANIVER (BETWEEN MYELIN) ALLOWS THE ACTION POTENTIAL TO ‘JUMP’ FROM NODE TO NODE DOWN THE NERVE.
66
Q

WHAT IS A SYNAPSE?

A

JUNCTIONS BETWEEN EXCITABLE CELLS

67
Q

SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION #1

A

VOLTAGE CHANGE OF THE ACTION POTENTIAL IS TO OPEN THE VOLTAGE-GATED CALCIUM CHANNELS & ALLOW CALCIUM ENTRY.

68
Q

SYNAPTIC TRANSIMISSION #2

A

CALCIUM CHANNELS OPEN, CALCIUM ENTER DOWN IT’S CALCIUM GRADIENT. SYNAPTIC VESICLES FUES & CONTENTS ARE DISCHARGED.

  • CHEMICALLY-GATED ION CHANNEL OPENED ALLOWS THE ENTRY OF SODIUM BRINING POSITIVE CHARGE CAUSING DEPOLARISATION AT THIS SITE.
  • IF BIG ENOUGH THIS COULD CAUSE THE OPENING OF VOLTAGE GATED SENSORS.
  • THEREFOR INCREASING THE LIKELIHOOD THAT THE POST-SYNAPTIC CELL WILL FIRE AN ACTION POTENTIAL.
69
Q

WHAT ARE MENINGES?

A

PROTECTIVE COVERING FOR THE BRAIN.

> THEY SIT BETWEEN THE CRANIUM & THE SURFACE OF THE BRAIN.

70
Q

WHAT ARE THE 3 LAYERS OF PROTECTIVE TISSUE ASSOCIATED WITH TH MENINGES?

A
  1. DURA MATER = BENEATH THE BONE OF THE CRANIUM.
  2. ARACHNOID = BENEATH THE DURA MATER
  3. PIA MATER = GOES INTO THE INDENTATION OF THE SURFACE OF THE BRAIN
71
Q

WHAT ARE THE 5 FEATURES OF THE DURA MATER?

A
  1. OUTER-MOST LAYER OF THE MENINGES
  2. DENSE & FIBROUS = TOUGH
  3. PRESENT IN 2 LAYERS (OUTER & INNER)
  4. SPACE BETWEEN THE LAYERS FORMS VENOUS SINUSES
  5. INNER LAYER FORMS DURA FOLDS.
72
Q

DURA FOLDS ARE:

A

FORMED FROM THE INNER LAYER OF THE DURA MATER
THEY SEPERATE MAJOR DIVISIONS OF THE BRAIN
PROVIDES STABILITY OF THE BRAIN WITHIN THE CRANIUM

73
Q

WHAT ARE THE 3 TYPES OF DURA FOLDS?

A
  1. FALX CEREBRI = SEPERATES CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES (MEDIAN PLANE)
  2. FALX CEREBELLI = SEPRATES CEREBELLAR HEMISPHERES (MEDIAN PLANE)
  3. TANTRUM CEREBELLA = SEPERATE THE CEREBRUM FROM THE CEREBELLUM
74
Q

3 FEATURES OF VENOUS SINUS’:

A
  • LOCATED WHERE THE TWO LAYERS OF THE DURA MATER SEPERATE
  • COLLECTING VEINS (SPACE THAT COLLECTS LIQUID)
  • COLLECT TWO THINGS;
    1. VENOUS BLOOD FROM THE BRAIN
    2. OLD CEREBROSPINAL FLUID AFTER IT HAS CYCLED THROUGH THE VENTRICULAR SYSTEM.

HUBS 191 (1 decks)

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