Prosimians Flashcards

Question

What are the two common renal diseases of prosimians? What animals do they typically affect? What are the typical lesions? What are two unique presentations of GI disease in prosimians? Which species are affected? What clinical signs are usually associated?

Answer 1

1. Chronic renal disease 1. Common in middle aged to older animals; severity varies 2. interstitial fibrosis, cystic tubules, and nonsuppurative, interstitial or tubulointerstitial inflammation, glomerulonephritis, enlarged or shrunken, fibrotic (sclerotic) glomeruli, adhesions between bowman’s capsule layers 2. Polycystic nephropathy - adult slender lorises 1. Kidneys have undulating capsular surfaces that correspond to underlying cortical cysts 2. lymphocytic and histiocytic interstitial nephritis, proliferative or membranous glomerular changes 3. Necrotizing enterocolitis and typhlitis 1. ring-tailed, red-ruffed, and mongoose lemurs 2. abdominal pain, lethargy, anorexia, potential hx of diarrhea 3. Mucosal to transmucosal necrosis of SI, cecum, LI 4. Unsuccessful attempts to ID a specific infectious cause; Ischemia has been proposed as a factor 4. Gastric pneumatosis (emphysematous gastritis, pneumatosis cystoides internalis) 1. black and white ruffed lemurs, red-ruffed lemurs, and a slow loris 2. focal or regionally extensive expansion of the gastric submucosa by large, multifocal to coalescing, cyst-like spaces 3. Gastric wall gas expansion may be radiographically apparent 4. CS: absent, lethargy, weakness, inappetence, vomiting, weight loss, sudden death 5. Cause not identified

Answer 2

1. Multifocal pyogranulomatous osteomyelitis - captive red-ruffed lemurs 1. Lameness, skeletal muscle atrophy 2. Rad: multifocal lytic lesions with cortical thickening and sclerosis in the diaphysis of the long bones of the fore and hind legs 3. Early - woven trabecular bone, neutrophilic inflammation, small foci of necrotic trabecular bone to more severe - necrotic bone, decreased trabecular production, chronic inflammation 4. Clinical signs may resolve with NSAIDS 5. Unknown cause 2. Periarticular hyperostosis (PH) - black lemurs associated with chronic renal disease 1. Proliferative, periosteal, new bone formation primarily associated with **metaphysis** 2. Advanced cases - periarticular osteophytes, cartilage degeneration

Answer 3

NEOPLASTIC 1. The most common tumors occur in the liver 1. Hepatocellular tumors more common than biliary 2. Carcinomas more common than adenomas 3. Metastases relatively common, often involve lung; reports in stomach, heart, kidney, mediastinum 4. Adenomas - composed of a proliferation of well-differentiated hepatocytes 5. Inflammation is not common 2. Lymphoma relatively common 3. Leukemia relatively common

Answer 4

1. Herpesviruses: 1. tarsier (TsyrHVL), aye-aye (DmadHVL) 2. Interspecies transmission of human herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) can cause significant disease in prosimians (similar to gorillas) 3. Herpesvirus encephalitis and meningoencephalitis 1. black and white ruffed, ring-tails, and pottos 2. CS: lethargy, weight loss, decreased coordination, lameness, paralysis, seizures, ptyalism, death 3. Gross lesions absent to multifocal hemorrhage or malacia 4. Hypereosinophilic necrotic neurons, malacia, demyelination, intranuclear eosinophilic viral inclusions (Type A – alphaherpesvirus)

Answer 5

1. Acute viral hepatitis 1. Associated with hepadenovirus-like particles in two black and white ruffed lemurs 1. lethargy, weakness, sudden collapse, anemia, icterus 2. hypoteinemia, bilirubinemia 3. Livers enlarged, mottled light tan, soft 2. Partially double stranded, partially single-stranded circular DNA 3. asymptomatic, hepatitis, hepatic necrosis, degeneration, benign hepatomas, hepatocellular carcinoma 4. Viral inclusions typically not seen 2. Parvovirus (nonenveloped) 1. Slow loris parvovirus 1 (S1.L-PV-1) - infected animal had persistent viremia 1. developed histiocytic sarcoma 2. Splenomegaly, mottled liver, lymphadenomegaly (pancreatic, mediastinal) 3. Mitotic figures common 4. PCR positive samples from liver, spleen, kidney, lung, intestine, serum, and whole blood

Answer 6

1. Encephalomyocarditis viruses (EMCV) 1. Nonenveloped, single-stranded, *Picornaviridae* 2. Rodents (especially mice and rats) natural hosts and reservoirs 3. Asymptomatic; sudden death or short period of weakness and lethargy prior to death 4. encephalitis, paralysis, myocarditis, diabetes, orchitis, reproductive disorders 5. Infection: shed in urine or feces; consumption of contaminated food/water/carcass 6. Captive outbreaks in Italy, Australia, and US in multiple lemur species 7. Heart usually most affected and preferred for diagnostic sample (but can be isolated from other tissues and feces) 8. cardiomegaly, myocardial pallor, epicardial petechial or ecchymotic hemorrhage, pulmonary congestion, hemorrhage, edema, hydropericardium (serous/serofibrinous/serosanguineous), thoracic effusion, ascites 9. Myocardial necrosis, cardiomyocyte hydropic degeneration, multifocal lymphoplasmacytic epi- and/or myocarditis +/- neutrophilic inflammation or necrotizing vasculitis 10. Less common - neuronal necrosis, satellitosis, perivascular meningeal hemorrhage

Answer 7

BACTERIAL 1. Several bacteria described in captive prosimians with enteric disease (*Campylobacter jejuni, Yersinia, E. coli, S. typhimurium, Shigella, Klebsiella, C. difficile*); many in feces of free-ranging lemurs 2. Bacterial septicemia cases - *Citrobacter, S. typhimurium* 3. Fibrinous and necrotizing bronchopneumonia - *Klebsiella pneumonia* or mixed infections in collared lemur and slow lorises 4. Ehrlichiosis 1. Tick-borne; gram-negative, obligate intracellular proteobacteria 2. *E. chaffeensis*: 1. US south-central and mid-Atlantic 2. Lone star tick (*Amblyomma americanum*) nymphs and adults transmit 3. White-tailed deer is main reservoir 4. Affected lemurs: anorexia, lethargy, fever, lymphomegaly; thrombocytopenia and leukopenia (lymphopenia, neutropenia), hyperbilirubinemia, azotemia, proteinuria 5. Ehrlichia morulae identified in lymphocytes and monocytes from ln aspirates; morula-like inclusions in leukocytes, PCR 5. Mycobacteriosis (acid-fast bacilli, granulomatous inflammation) 1. *M. tuberculosis*: 1. ring-tailed, ruffed, black and mongoose lemurs 2. Pulmonary infection most common, but other sites include intestines, thoracic cavity, liver, spleen, mesenteric ln 2. *M. xenopi*: 1. Captive black and white ruffed lemur 2. Similar lesions 6. Tularemia 1. *Francisella tularensis* - gram negative coccobacillus 2. Rodent and rabbit carriers 3. Systemic disease described in captive ring-tailed and black and white ruffed lemurs 4. Marked splenomegaly, microabscess formation in liver and spleen (nodular aggregates of neutrophilic inflammation with central necrosis and intralesional bacteria), bronchopneumonia 5. Confirm diagnosis with culture 6. Antibiotics and rodent control helpful

Answer 8

FUNGAL 1. Coccidioidomycosis (valley fever, San Joaquin Valley fever) - captive ring-tailed lemur 1. Only in Western hemisphere; caused by *C. immitis* or *C. Posadasii* 2. Dimorphic, saprophytic fungi - mycelia in warm arid regions of SW US, Mexico and parts of Central and South America 3. Inhalation of spores, primary infection usually in lungs but can occur through breaks in skin; can develop into disseminated disease 4. Granulomatous or pyogranulomatous inflammation and/or abscess formation 5. characteristic intralesional coccidioidal spherules with or without endospores 2. Dermatophytosis - *Trichophyton mentagrophytes* 1. Crusting dermatitis and alopecia in skin around mouth, eyes, neck, forefoot; thickened perineal skin 2. lymphoplasmacytic perivascular dermatitis with folliculitis, furunculosis, and intralesional fungal hyphae 3. Coquerel’s sifaka 4. intra/interspecies or zoonotic transmission is concern

Answer 9

1. *Gongylonema* sp - threadlike nematodes of birds and mammals transmitted by insects (beetles, cockroaches) 1. Tongue or esophagus; adult worms in superficial stratified squamous epithelium of mucosa and form serpiginous tracts 2. One publication reports association with squamous cell carcinoma in a black & white ruffed lemur (vari) 2. *Physaloptera* spp 1. Stomach of captive prosimians 2. Occasional cause mild or significant disease - gastritis in ruffed lemur; black lemur died due to gastric perforation and suppurative peritonitis (*P. sibirica*) kd 3. *Spirocerca lupi* - aortic aneurysm formation, rupture and death 4. *Baylisascaris procyonis* - encephalitis from migration of larvae 1. Black and white ruffed lemurs - malacia with gitter cells in multiple brain sites; characteristic parasites only seen in one animal 2. white -headed lemurs: granulomatous meningoencephalitis; white matter necrosis associated with larvae; intralesional larvae found in lungs, kidney, spleen, heart, jejunum

Answer 10

1. Cysticercosis - fluid filled bladder containing a single attached inverted scolex (caused by larval *Taenia*) 1. Carnivore definitive host, rodent intermediate host 2. 2 ring-tails in Europe, a black lemur in the US, red ruffed lemur case 1. First ring tail: multiple, septated fibrous cysts containing myriad cysticerci in the subcutis and peritoneal cavity 2. Second: two large, intraabdominal cysticerci associated with severe fibrinosuppurative peritonitis 3. Black lemur: a large, fluctuant swelling in the subcutis over the back; with similar lesions in abdomen and thorax (replaced a portion of lung lobe) 4. Source not identified 2. *Hydatid* cysts produced by larval cestodes of *Echinococcus* - greater galago, ring-tailed lemur 1. Large fluid-filled cysts with outer membrane and inner germinal epithelium from which brood capsules containing one or multiple, small inverted scolices form and remain attached or bud off and float freely within the cyst 2. Galago - abdominal distension 3. Lemur - 7 cm diameter cyst in caudal thorax caused displacement of herat and right lung lobe atrophy; another large cyst in liver 4. Both animals wild caught

Answer 11

Protozoan Parasites 1. *Toxoplasma gondii* 1. Fatal systemic infection with mononuclear cell infiltrates and intracellular tachyzoites, parenchymal cysts 2. Placentitis, abortion, disseminated fetal infection, neonatal death in pregnant animals 2. Amoebic encephalitis 1. Life threatening disease for humans and non-human primates 2. Death of black and white ruffed lemur - necrotizing meningoencephalitis due to *Acanthamoeba* T4 genotype; sudden onset of lethargy, recumbency and seizures 3. Neutrophilic leukocytosis and lymphopenia 4. Hemorrhage, necrosis, inflammatory lesions in frontal and parietal lobes of cerebrum with intralesional double-layered amoebic cysts and trophozoites 5. PCR confirmed organism 6. Water most likely source of infection 3. Cryptosporidiosis 1. free ranging and captive lemurs and captive sifakas 2. No clinical signs to mild anorexia, lethargy and abdominal bloat +/- diarrhea 4. *Plasmodium -* several sp. reported in wild lemurs, but clinical disease has not been described 5. *Trypanosoma cruzi* - asymptomatic infection in captive and free-ranging ring-tailed lemurs; other species in collection of captive lemurs were seropositive 6. *Giardia* 7. *Entamoeba*

Answer 12

Ectoparasites 1. *Demodex* - host specific, over proliferation 1. Captive Senegal bushbabies 2. Raised nodules with thick waxy white material and papules on haired and unhaird surfaces of ear pinnae or rarely on legs 3. Mites present on histology

Answer 13

Shapiro, M. E., Shapiro, H. G., & Ehmke, E. E. (2018). Behavioral responses of three lemur species to different food enrichment devices. *Zoo biology*, *37*(3), 146-155. **Abstract:** Environmental enrichment is a tool used to promote the welfare and well‐being of captive animals by encouraging the display of species‐specific behaviors and reducing the stress or boredom induced by captive environments. Lemurs are highly endangered, yet few studies have analyzed the behavioral impacts of enrichment on captive populations. We studied the impacts of two novel enrichment devices on three lemur species (ring‐tailed lemurs [Lemur catta], red‐ruffed lemurs [Varecia rubra], and Coquerel's sifaka [Propithecus coquereli]) to determine both the overall and species‐specific impacts of enrichment on lemur behavior. We recorded lemur behavior using the continuous sampling method to obtain behavior duration and analyzed our results using ANOVA Repeated Measures. Results showed enrichment effectiveness differed for each species and that different enrichment devices had varying impacts on lemur behavior across all species. We attributed the differences in species‐specific responses to the unique locomotor patterns and methods of diet acquisition of each species, and the variances in behavioral responses across all species to the characteristics of each device. Our study highlights the importance of species‐specific enrichment and encourages further research in this field in order to maximize the positive effects of enrichment, which in turn has the potential to affect the overall well‐being of captive populations. * Ring‐tailed lemurs, red‐ruffed lemurs, and Coquerel's sifaka looking at three treatments/enrichment and time spent interacting with device * Food bowl (control) * Bottle feeder (enrichment) * Hanger (enrichment) * Bottle feeder was most effective device for ring-tailed lemurs * Hanger was most effective device for red-ruffed lemurs * Bottle feeder and hanger were both effective for Coquerel's sifaka * **Results indicate that the most effective enrichment device for one species may not be the most effective enrichment device for another species** * Enrichment devices significantly increased average duration of locomotion * Hanger was most effective for increasing locomotion * Enrichment devices significantly decreased average duration of resting compared to food bowl * No significant impact of enrichment or species by enrichment on stereotypic behavior * Juveniles spent significantly more time locomoting while adults spent more time resting

Answer 14

Cassady, K., Cullen, J. M., & Williams, C. V. (2018). Mortality in coquerel's sifakas (propithecus coquereli) under human care: a retrospective survey from the duke lemur center 1990–2015. *Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine*, *49*(2), 315-323. Abstract: Coquerel's sifakas (*Propithecus coquereli*) are diurnal, folivorous lemurs native to Madagascar and one of only two members of the genus *Propithecus* currently housed in human care settings outside of Madagascar. This species has a lifespan of approximately 30 yr but minimal information exists regarding morbidity and mortality in human care settings. In this retrospective study, medical records, postmortem exam, and autopsy reports from 56 animals housed at the Duke Lemur Center from 1990 to 2015 were evaluated. Mortality assessments included age, sex, time of year, histopathological findings, major organ system impacted, and etiological factors. **Mortality was most prevalent among adults greater than 2 yr of age (42.9%) and neonates less than 7 days of age (30.4%). The top four morphological diagnoses accounted for 51.7% of all deaths and included stillbirths (19.6%), enteritis-colitis (12.5%), failure to thrive (10.7%), and systemic protozoal infections (8.9%)**. The two most commonly affected organ systems in animals over 7 days of age were multisystem disease (30.8%) and the gastrointestinal system (28.2%). Infections were the most common etiology with **bacterial being the most prevalent followed by protozoal infections.** The results provide insight into common causes of mortality of this species and can be used to guide management of this endangered primate and improve longevity in human care settings. * Introduction: * Coquerel’s sifakas – diurnal lemur native to Madagascar. * M+M: * Retrospective 56 animals, 1990-2015. * Results/Discussion: * No significant difference in mortality based on sex. * Adults and perinatal group majority of deaths. * Perinatal deaths were within the first 3 days of life. Most stillbirths. * Number of infections attributed to protozoa or amoeba remarkable with small sample size. * This species may be particularly susceptible. * **Systemic infections due to Acanthamoeba, Naegleria, Toxoplasmosis, Neospora in 5 animals, Cryptosporidium in 4 others.** * Toxoplasmosis not a major contributor to mortality in this study. * Primary cardiac dz not identified in any animal. Contrasts with great apes.

Answer 15

Quintard, B., Lefaux, B., Lécu, A., Niphuis, H., Roux, P., & Ortiz, K. (2019). Biomedical evaluation of a brown lemur (Eulemur fulvus spp.) population from Mbouzi islet, Mayotte island. *Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine*, *50*(3), 650-658. Abstract: The brown lemur population (*Eulemur fulvus* spp.) in Mbouzi islet is not native, and was introduced in 1997. Since then, the population has grown. In 2012 the National Council for Protection of Nature of Mayotte requested to remove this population of lemurs from Mbouzi, as they were suspected to be a threat to the protected endemic flora of the islet. The Association Francophone des Vétérinaires de Parcs Zoologiques (French-speaking Zoo Veterinarians Association, AFVPZ) was asked to conduct a biomedical evaluation of the population. Fifty-two animals were captured, anesthetized, and weighed. They all underwent a general physical examination. Feces were sampled for bacterial and parasitological screening. Hair was sampled for genetic studies and blood was sampled for hematology, biochemistry, viral serology, and haemoparasitology. **Results showed that three individuals had a positive feces culture for *Salmonella enterica* and six had *Lemuricola* or *Callistoura* parasite infestations. Blood analyses for hematology and biochemistry showed 46 animals with elevated transferrin, 42 with low ferritin levels, 19 with hyperglycemia, and 10 with neutrophilia. Finally, 10 were positive for *Toxoplasma* serology, one was positive for α herpesvirus, five for pox virus, five for simian virus 40, and two for flavivirus.** This publication reports the first complete biomedical evaluation of lemurs on Mayotte Island. * Introduction: * Brown lemurs introduced on Mayotte Island (Comoros - Island Nation north of Madagascar) from Madagascar, now integrated into local ecosystem. * Potential threat to endemic flora, full biomedical evaluation of the population performed. * Human interaction is common in this group – banana feeding twice a week ~15yrs. * Results/Discussion: * All masked down with iso for PE, sample collection. * 31% had significant hair loss on hands, forearms, tail, one had lice, some dental dz. Hair loss attributed to nutritional deficiency. Zinc, protein, iron and vit B deficiencies have been associated with alopecia in primates. * NSD for any of the hematologic values between sexes. * Toxoplasmosis titers positive in 10/52 individuals. No felids present on the island, so exposure is likely to be anthropogenic. * Only oxyurids on fecals i.e. Lemuricola spp and Callistoura spp parasites, no hemoparasites found. * 3 positive salmonella enterica enterica fecal culture. One Ab positive for HSV1. 10% Ab positive for pan polyomavirus. 5 animals Ab positive for poxvirus. * All animals hyperglycemic, attributed to stress of capture. Potential for developing DM. * Iron overload possible in this group due to low ferritin and elevated transferrin saturation percentage. * Takeaway: Impact of human activity likely resulting in poor hair coat condition, teeth status, and iron metabolite levels in this population. May also be reason for the HSV1 positive animal and exposure to toxoplasmosis in this population.

Answer 16

Junge, R. E., Williams, C. V., Rakotondrainibe, H., Mahefarisoa, K. L., Rajaonarivelo, T., Faulkner, C., & Mass, V. (2017). Baseline health and nutrition evaluation of two sympatric nocturnal lemur species (Avahi laniger and Lepilemur mustelinus) residing near an active mine site at Ambatovy, Madagascar. *Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine*, *48*(3), 794-803. **Abstract:** Extractive industries can have significant impacts on ecosystems through loss of habitat, degradation of water quality, and direct impact on floral and faunal biodiversity. When operations are located in sensitive regions with high biodiversity containing endangered or threatened species, it is possible to minimize impact on the environment by developing programs to scientifically monitor the impact on resident flora and fauna species in the early phases of operation so that effects can be mitigated whenever possible. This report presents the baseline health, nutrition, and trace mineral evaluation for 33 Avahi laniger (Eastern wooly lemur) and 15 Lepilemur mustelinus (greater sportive lemur) captured and given complete health evaluations that included the measurement of fat-soluble vitamins and trace minerals in addition to routine complete blood counts, serum chemistries, and parasite evaluations. All lemurs appeared healthy on physical examination despite the presence of minor wounds consistent with interspecies aggression in some individuals. Serum chemistry values were within expected ranges for other lemur species; however, A. laniger erythrocytes were significantly smaller than those of L. mustelinus. **Serum nickel values were markedly higher than expected in both species, and selenium, copper, and cobalt levels were higher in L. mustelinus compared with A. laniger at the study site, as well as values for I. indri or P. diadema reported from other locations.** Endoparasites and ectoparasites were typical of those reported in other wild lemur species, but load and diversity varied between A. laniger and L. mustelinus despite inhabiting the same forest ecosystem. This baseline assessment provides the foundation for ongoing monitoring. * Eastern wooly lemur and greater sportive lemur * Small, folivorous, nocturnal lemurs * Sympatric in the forests in the Ambatovy region in Madagascar * M + M * Anesthetized with telazol * PE, CBC/chem, fecal, ectoparasite collection * Measurement of vitamins A, E, beta carotene, and 25, hydroxycholecalciferol * Serum trace mineral analysis for cobalt, copper, iron, nickel, manganese, molybdenum, selenium, and zinc * Results/discussion * Both species appear to be carotenoid non-accumulators * A. laniger erythrocytes were significantly smaller than those of L. mustelinus * nocturnal L. mustelinus has significantly lower vitamin D than diurnal I. indri and P. diadema * L. mustelinus, which sleeps in tree holes during day, had lower vitamin D levels than A. laniger, which sleeps in trees during day. * Exposure to natural sunlight may contribute to vitamin D generation in both diurnal and nocturnal lemur species * **Cobalt, copper, selenium, and zinc were all higher in L. mustelinus than in A. laniger** * **Differences in serum cobalt and selenium were significant** * Median levels of selenium and cobalt in L. mustelinus far exceeded those of either A. laniger at Ambatovy, I. indri evaluated at Analamazoatra, or P. diadema at Tsinjoarivo * A. laniger at Ambatovy, and I. indri at Analamazoatra by Junge and Barrett considered selenium deficient if compared to normal from other animals * **Markedly lower levels of iron and higher levels of nickel and zinc in A. laniger and L. mustelinus** * No major concerns or signs of illness in animals sampled

Answer 17

Řeháková, M. (2019). Successful breeding attempt of a pair of Philippine tarsier (Tarsius syrichta) in a conservation center in Bilar, Bohol, Philippines and recommendations for tarsier husbandry. *Zoo biology*, *38*(6), 516-521. Abstract: The Philippine tarsier (Tarsius syrichta) belongs to the least known nocturnal primates. Tarsiers and remaining biodiversity of the Philippines are under tremendous threats from increasing human expansion, with habitat loss and illegal pet trade being the main reasons for tarsier population decline. In addition, even though the attempts were made by western and local facilities, tarsiers have not survived well in captivity. **In this paper, I present an example of successful breeding of the Philippine tarsier in captive conditions but in natural climate**. As the most important elements of success, I see **a large amount of space provided to tarsiers, the climate similar to their natural habitat and the food resembling their natural diet**. Our pair of tarsiers were joined during the mating period and held separately outside the mating period, which corresponds with their behavior in the wild and may have played a crucial role in breeding success. Eliminating stress to animals is also important. The study can provide valuable guidelines for other facilities keeping tarsiers in the Philippines and help to improve tarsiers’ welfare and in the future help to establish a viable captive population of the Philippine tarsier that will serve as a backup population and also will decrease demand on tarsiers captured from the wild. * Philippine tarsiers are an endangered species that have had little success in captivity and captive breeding has been challenging * Nearly 89% captive‐born T. syrichta did not live beyond the first year and there were no recorded cases of successful second‐ generation reproduction in the Philippine tarsiers * They are the only strictly carnivorous primates (insects, spiders, crustaceans, small vertebrates) * Solitary species, seasonal breeders * This paper describes condition husbandry practices used in a captive pair that bred successfully, conservation center in Bohol, Phillippines * Temperature and humidity kept at natural conditions (24.3 C and 95.2% respectively) * Tarsiers given lots of space and sheltered areas * Given as close to natural diet as possible, many live caught from the wild * Breeding pair was held together during mating period and separated otherwise * The first breeding resulted in a suspected stillbirth * The second a year later was successful

Answer 18

Breton, G., Thibault, S., Werts, M., & Baudry, E. (2019). Captive ring‐tailed lemur breeding in semi‐free ranging conditions and genetic parentage analysis. *Zoo biology*, *38*(3), 281-291. Abstract: The ring‐tailed lemur (Lemur catta), one of the most iconic and widely recognized primates in the world, is threatened in its native range and classified as endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. The global conservation strategy for the species includes ex situ conservation efforts led by zoological institutions in the framework of regional captive breeding programs. To maximize the conservation of genetic diversity and optimize breeding programs, an accurate pedigree must be established in captive populations. **Our study documents the formation and subsequent monitoring of a large ring****‐****tailed lemur group in a French zoological institution. Based on staff's behavioral observations and DNA analyses using 11 microsatellite markers, we were able to document the survival and reproduction rates of the lemurs in this situation and reconstruct the pedigree of infants born in the institution**. In total, 22 of the 28 imported animals as well as 4 locally born individuals gave birth to 58 infants of which 28 survived. The consistent genotypes obtained from the 53 sampled animals allowed us to identify 25 of the sires and 27 of the dams for the 28 surviving infants. A total of 12 different females and 14 different males produced the 28 surviving infants, suggesting that no individual dominates reproduction. This pioneering study has practical applications for the captive management of the species, which can be raised to the individual level instead of the group level. **Background** * Ring-tailed lemur - native range Madagascar, endangered IUCN * Live in multi-male female troops of 6-24 in the wild with core of 2 or 3 related females * Aggression within and between troops is common * Cause of infant mortality in wild: natural predation, severe drought, infanticide by adult males, female indifference or aggression * Live up to 30 yrs in captivity (20 in the wild) * Mating season in the wild: mid-April; Parturition late Aug-Oct; gestation 135-141 days * Targeted aggression or fissioning begins at critical number of ~7 females **Key Points** * Offspring survival rate to adulthood: 48% (similar to wild 30-51% up to 80%) * Mortality rate at 3rd month: 46% (cause of death 40.7% disappeared, 15% unidentified conflict, infanticide by black lemurs was noted) * 64% births in March, 24% in April, some in Feb and June - shift from wild due to photoperiod difference in the Northern Hemisphere * Sex ratio even * No single male dominance in siring infants with paternity shift over time as younger males aged * Males gained access to females from 2.5 yrs and started producing surviving infants after age 3 - similar to wild * Dominant females produced the most infants and oldest females bred throughout entire study period * All adult females helped to raise young, infants were frequently exchanged leading to dam-infant dyad misidentification by staff * Carry their young ventrally until 3 wks when they move to the back and start expanding relationships to other related females and males **Conclusions** * Ring-tailed lemurs have few behavioral and veterinarian problems, excellent breeding success, and thrive in captivity * Recommend starting a troop with a small number of related females * Avoid housing with black lemurs due to risk of infanticide of ring-tailed infants * Recommend giving staff time to gain recognition expertise and allow precise group management so that all individuals can be accurately recognized * Genetic tracking clearly identified pedigree even between closely related animals * Encourage other institutions to use genetic methods to document pedigree and aid in studbook management of the ring-tailed lemur, an endangered species

Answer 19

**CLONAL SPREAD OF YERSINIA ENTEROCOLITICA 1B/O:8 IN MULTIPLE ZOO SPECIES** Christie L. Hicks, DVM, Julia E. Napier, DVM, Douglas L. Armstrong, DVM, Lori M. Gladney, Cheryl L. Tarr, PhD, Molly M. Freeman, PhD, and Peter C. Iwen, PhD, D (ABMM) _Abstract:_ Yersinia enterocolitica (YE) bioserotype 1B/O:8 (YE 1B/O:8) was identified in routine culture of a variety of zoo species housed at Omaha’s Henry Doorly Zoo and Aquarium (OHDZA) from April to July 2011. Animal cases representing 12 species had YE detected from 34 cases during routine fecal monitoring and/or during postmortem examination: Coquerel’s sifakas (Propithecus coquereli, two cases), black & white (BW) ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata variegata, six cases), red ruffed lemurs (Varecia rubra, seven cases), white handed gibbon (Hylobates lar albimana, one case), black lemurs (Eulemur macaco, three cases), mongoose lemurs (Eulemur mongoz, two cases), African hunting dogs (Lycaon pictus, five cases), agile gibbons (Hylobates agilis, three cases), siamangs (Hylobates syndactylus, two cases), colobus monkey (Colobus angolensis palliates, one case), argus pheasant (Argusianus argus, one case), and orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus, one case). Most species were not symptomatic; however, three symptomatic cases in Coquerel’s sifakas (two) and a white handed gibbon (one) showed clinical signs of diarrhea and lethargy that resulted in death for the Coquerel’s sifakas. One unexpected death also occurred in a BW ruffed lemur. To the authors’ knowledge, this is the first report of YE 1B/O:8 in such a large variety of zoo species. The source of the YE could not be identified, prompting the initiation of a diseases surveillance program to prevent further cases for the species that are sensitive to YE. To date, no additional cases have been identified, thus suggesting a single introduction of the YE 1B/O:8 strain into the zoo environment. *Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 51(1): 170–176, 2020* _Importance:_ low- not a new species, first report of an outbreak in this many species but has been reported in all of those species previously, good to know the important biotypes _Introduction:_ * Yersinia enterocolitica = gram negative coccobacillus * Six biotypes (1A, 1B, 2, 3, 4, 5) and 60 serotypes * Cause of GI disease in humans and many animals (birds, mammals, reptiles) * Most common cause of disease in animals = biotype 1B/O:8; biotype 4B/O:3 is an emerging pathogen _Methods/results:_ * Study describing the clonal spread of YE biotype 1B/O:8 at a zoo with shedding seen in multiple species * Detected in 34 cultures from 12 species over about 100 days * Several different areas of the zoo * Range from asymptomatic shedding - mild disease - acute disease- death * Most severe in the nonhuman primates * Acute death in BW ruffed lemur * Necropsy lesions: abscesses of the large intestines, lymph nodes, liver * Coquerel’s sifaka- presented for dehydration/lethargy, supportive care given but died * Necropsy lesions: severe necrotizing ulcerative hemorrhagic enteritis; second lemur = liver necrosis, DIC * Negative for YE at the time of necropsy? _Discussion:_ * Suspect all cases came from a common exposure to a single strain * Exposure to YE primarily from contaminated food or water * Zoonotic transfer to/from humans has to be considered during an outbreak _Comments/questions_: * A little confused on what “clonal spread” means in this context- I think it’s just that the same bacterial strain was seen throughout the case outbreak * Definition found online- Clonal spread of a resistant strain: Under the selective pressure of antibiotics a strain carrying antimicrobial resistance genes may be preferentially selected and transferred within a population.

Answer 20

HEALTH ASSESSMENT OF BLACK-AND-WHITE RUFFED LEMURS (VARECIA VARIEGATA) IN RANOMAFANA NATIONAL PARK, MADAGASCAR Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 52(4): 1095–1104, 2021 Abstract: The Anthropocene is a major threat to biodiversity worldwide. Human pressures including climate change and emerging infectious diseases are presenting new challenges to wildlife, requiring vigilance and monitoring of wild populations to ensure their persistence. In order to monitor fluctuations in health, baseline data from long-term studies are required**. Clinical laboratory data on 80 black-and-white ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata), derived from the capture of 98 individuals spanning six field seasons are presented**. Serum biochemical profiles showed variation between years that remained within published reference intervals for the species, with the exception of total bilirubin in 2008, and creatine kinase and chloride in 2019. Serum trace minerals and fat soluble vitamin values also fluctuated between years and are within ranges seen in other lemur species. **These results, combined with previously published data on ectoparasite load and population genetic diversity, suggest that the Mangevo ruffed lemur population is healthy and can provide important and valuable baseline data for comparisons moving forward**. Intro * Black-and-white ruffed lemur behavioral ecology and genetics have been the focus of longitudinal research in Ranomafana National Park (Madagascar) since 2005. This paper presents the conclusions from health and nutrition assessments of 98 individuals over that time period M&M * Lemurs anesthetized using telazol * PE and tracker tagged, fecal, biochemistry, vitamin and mineral panel Results and discussion * N = 80 (39 males, 41 females) * Body weight and PE parameters did not differ between sexes * For biochemistry, there is statistically significant variation between years for nearly every parameter measured. * However, with the exception of three parameters (total bilirubin [T bili] in 2008; chloride [Cl], and creatine kinase [CK] in 2019), all of these results fall within the reference ranges determined for this species in human care * Results of trace mineral and fat-soluble vitamin analyses--no reference interval available to compared to relatively similar lemur species there are some differences, likely due to diet * Cu, Fe, Mn and Zn similar. Co higher in other lemur species, Se levels higher in the study population * Mo detected some years and not others. Unclear significance. * When examining sex differences, males and females only differed in their Vitamin D values (lower in females). Suspected to be correlated with pregnancy and parturition but could not be confirmed

Answer 21

*J Zoo Wildl Med* 2021 52(4): 1263–1269 **A RETROSPECTIVE STUDY OF BITE WOUND MANAGEMENT IN RING-TAILED LEMURS (*LEMUR CATTA*) HOUSED WITHIN FIVE BRITISH ZOOS** Ceccolini ME, Hedley J, Chang Y, and Guthrie A **ABSTRACT:** Captive nonhuman primates frequently experience bite wounds inflicted by conspecifics; however, few studies evaluate wound management in these animals. _This study evaluates bite wound management in 35 captive ring-tailed lemurs (RTL, *Lemur catta*) held within five British zoological institutions between 2015 and 2019. Treatments for 152 bite incidents resulting in 211 bite wounds were summarized._ Treatment efficacy and potential risk factors for bite wound complications were evaluated for correlations with outcomes. _Treatments in the first 48 hours included analgesia alone (54/152; 35.5%); analgesia and antimicrobials (42/152; 27.6%); no treatment (26/152; 17.1%); analgesia, antimicrobials, and wound management under anesthesia (24/152; 15.8%); and antimicrobials alone (6/152; 3.9%). Poor outcomes were observed in RTL in association with 20.4% of wounds (43/211): signs of pain (SOP) after 48 hours were the most common (30/211; 14.2%), followed by signs of infection (SOI, 16/211; 7.6%), wound dehiscence (7/211; 3.3%), and abnormal function or behavior at day 30 (4/ 211; 1.9%). Poor outcomes were more likely with severe bite wounds and bite wounds to the hand or limb (thoracic or pelvic, excluding the hand or foot). Specifically, SOP were more likely to be observed with severe wounds and solitary wounds, and SOI were more likely to be observed with wounds not treated with early antimicrobials._ When SOI occurred, most resolved with antimicrobial treatment alone. Early analgesia is recommended for RTL with bite wounds. If SOP persist, multimodal analgesia should be administered. Clinicians should consider withholding antimicrobials for RTL with bite wounds of mild and moderate severity until SOI are observed **Goal:** Summarize bite wound management of ring-tailed lemurs held in British institutions over a 5-yr period; evaluate associations between wound factors, treatments, and outcomes; and provide recommendations based on these findings **Key Points:** * Bite wounds from conspecifics are common in captive NHP * Despite this frequency, literature re: outcomes of bite wound management are limited to single case reports and a study on tetanus management * Treatments were commonly administered to severe and/or multiple bite wounds * Wounds to the feet or head, closed wounds, and solitary wounds were treated less frequently * In humans, bite wounds to the hand are at high risk for infection, tendinitis, and joint stiffness because of the potential involvement of tendons, joint capsules, and bone * Compared to multiple wound incidents, solitary wounds were more likely to result in SOP * Licking and overgrooming are potential indicators of pain * Meloxicam was the most commonly analgesia used * The use of analgesia was not a predictor of wound outcome * Early antimicrobials were prescribed in almost half of the incidents * Human inflicted bite wounds are reported to have infection rates of 20–25% * The use of prophylactic antimicrobials for bite wounds in humans remains controversial * In this study, bite wounds had an overall infection rate of 7.6% * 13.3% of wounds untreated and 3.3% of wounds treated developed SOI * Although RTL have a large hindgut, diarrhea was not observed despite the frequent use of beta-lactams * Surgical repair was performed on 51 wounds in this study, including five hand wounds * Only one on the body developed SOI, suggesting that surgical repair is unlikely to increase risk of infection **TLDR:** * Poor outcomes were uncommon but occurred more w/ severe wounds and bite wounds to the limbs or hands * SOP were more likely to be observed with severe wounds and solitary wounds * Although SOI occurred more when early antimicrobials were NOT administered, SOI were uncommon overall, and most resolved once antimicrobials were administered * Consider withholding antimicrobials for bite wounds of mild to moderate severity until SOI are observed

Answer 22

OUTCOMES OF TRANSPLACENTAL TRANSMISSION OF TOXOPLASMA GONDII FROM CHRONICALLY INFECTED FEMALE RED RUFFED LEMURS (VARECIA RUBRA) Geoffrey R. Browning, MS, DVM, Cora Singleton, DVM, DACZM, Dean Gibson, MS, and Ilse H. Stalis, DVM, DACVP Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, 2021;52(3):1036-1041 Abstract: Ten red ruffed lemurs (Varecia rubra)—two adult females and their eight offspring—were evaluated in this case series**. Two adult females were diagnosed with chronic, latent toxoplasmosis based on serologic testing**. The first female lemur had two successive pregnancies**. The first pregnancy resulted in transplacental transmission of Toxoplasma gondii**. The only surviving offspring was diagnosed with congenital toxoplasmosis based on serologic testing and compatible ophthalmic lesions. The two deceased offspring had disseminated nonsuppurative inflammation and intralesional protozoal organisms consistent with T. gondii, which was confirmed by polymerase chain reaction. The second pregnancy did not result in transplacental transmission. The second chronically infected adult female lemur had one pregnancy that resulted in a single stillborn fetus without evidence of transplacental transmission of T. gondii. Treatment with trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole and folinic acid was administered to the first adult female and one offspring, but no treatment was given to the second adult female. All surviving lemurs had no further complications associated with toxoplasmosis. **This case series demonstrates that chronic, latent infection of reproductive female red ruffed lemurs with T. gondii may result in variable outcomes: (1) transplacental transmission with disseminated fetal infection and stillbirth, (2) transplacental transmission with congenital infection and survival, or (3) lack of transplacental transmission and healthy offspring**. Information gained from these cases may help guide recommendations for breeding of this critically endangered species. **_Key Points:_** * Red ruffed lemurs are prosimians native to Madagascar * Toxoplasma gondii is apicomplexan protozoa * Felids are definitive hosts – ingestion of sporulated oocysts, intermediate hosts or transplacental transmission can occur * Frequently infection is asymptomatic but results in chronic lifelong latency * **Acute disseminated toxoplasmosis and localized (placentitis, stillbirth, disseminated fetal infection) infection reported in ring tailed lemurs** * Case series described outcomes of pregnancies in two latently infected with T gondii. * Case 1 * Nulliparous female with chronic toxoplasmosis diagnosed based on chronically elevated T gondii IgG and chorioretinal scars * 2/3 neonates died secondary to in utero infection with T gondii (reactivation of chronic latent infection occurred during pregnancy with transplacental transmission to the offspring) * Disseminated lesions in 2 - T gondii protozoa seen in lung, kidney, and adipose tissue. PCR positive placenta and liver. * One survived with chorioretinitis alone - surviving neonate diagnosed with congenital latent toxoplasmosis (inactive chorioretinitis and positive IgG) and treated with TMS and folinic acid for 1 year. * Neonates will have maternal IgG and antibodies, so measurement of IgM and follow-up serology at 6-12 months is recommended to exclude maternal transfer * Treated with TMS and folinic acid for 1 year – gave birth 16 mo after treatment ended and 2/4 survived * No evidence of transplacental transmission based on serology and post mortem exams * Case 2 * 10 yr old lemur tested positive for T gondii during quarantine evaluation. Two years later animal had a stillbirth. Dam was T gondii positive 1day after parturition but no evidence of toxoplasmosis in the neonate nor placenta. * Lemur with chronic latent toxoplasmosis can have first pregnancy free from reactivation and transplacental transmission * Birth outcomes of two red ruffed lemurs with serologic evidence of chronic latent toxoplasmosis * Reactivation of latent toxoplasmosis with transplacental transmission and survival of congenitally infected offspring * Gestational reactivation of latent toxoplasmosis is NOT universal across successive pregnancies nor individuals * **Previous report of T gondii infection in ring tailed lemur which resulted in reactivation, transplacental transmission and disseminated toxoplasmosis (hepatic necrosis and encephalitis) in all fetuses followed by death in the dam from myocardial toxoplasmosis.** * **Recommend minimizing stress during gestation in chronically infected lemurs.** * **No definitive reason for lack of reactivation and transplacental transmission of T Gondii in second pregnancy of case 1 and in case 2** * Single episode of gestation reactivation of latent toxoplasmosis does NOT predict future gestational reactivation in red ruffed lemurs * Reactivation of latent toxoplasmosis may not cause clinical disease in the dam and transplacental transmission is not universally fatal to the offspring. **_Take home:_** **In chronic, latently infected red ruffed lemurs, pregnancy can stimulate reactivation causing** 1. **Transplacental transmission and fetal death** 2. **Transplacental transmission and congenital latent toxoplasmosis** **Can also have a lack of reactivation of latent toxoplasmosis**

Answer 23

Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 257(8): 849-854 2020 **Long-term management of congestive heart failure secondary to mitral stenosis in a ring-tailed lemur (*Lemur*** ***catta*****)** Shane D. Murphy, DVM, Jessica L. Ward, DVM, Jodi D. Smith, DVM, PhD, Andrew J. Gall, DVM, June E. Olds, DVM (Reviewed by KMT) **Abstract**: CASE DESCRIPTION: A **15-year-old sexually intact female ring-tailed lemur** (Lemur catta) was evaluated for **a heart murmur and progressive radiographic cardiomegaly.** CLINICAL FINDINGS: The lemur was clinically normal at the time of initial evaluation. Results of transthoracic echocardiography performed when the animal was anesthetized indicated **mitral valve stenosis and severe left atrial dilation**. Three months later, signs of **left-sided congestive heart failure (CHF; coughing, exercise intolerance, and tachypnea) were observed and confirmed by the presence of radiographic pulmonary edema.** TREATMENT AND OUTCOME: Medical treatment that consisted of **aspirin, benazepril, furosemide,** **pimobendan****, spironolactone, and ultimately torsemide in lieu of furosemide successfully controlled the lemur’s clinical signs for 33 months after the development of CHF.** Euthanasia was then elected on the basis of perceived poor quality of life because tachypnea became refractory to progressively higher dosages of diuretic. Necropsy confirmed mitral stenosis with severe left atrial dilation and chronic pulmonary congestion. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The present report described the long-term medical management of CHF secondary to mitral stenosis in a lemur. Mitral stenosis was suspected to be **a congenital defect**, similar to the cause of mitral stenosis reported for dogs and cats, rather than to be an acquired change in association with rheumatic heart disease as commonly occurs for people. The lemur’s CHF was well managed for 33 months with treatment, including pimobendan, which was well tolerated. (J Am Vet Med Assoc 2020;257: 849–854) **Key points:** * 15 yo FI RTL presenting with heart murmur (grade 3/6 diastolic, PMI over left apex) and radiographic cardiomegaly, no clinical signs initially, normal CBC/Chem * First noted incidentally at 4 yo, murmur was noted intermittently during immobilizations throughout life * Progressive LA enlargement on radiographs * Echocardiogram under anesthesia at 15yo showed mitral valve stenosis and severe LA dilation * Medications utilized in treatment included aspirin and benazepril initially * 3 months after echo, lemur developed cough and exercise intolerance à started on pimobendan and furosemide * Cough recurred and noted increased respiratory effort 10 months later à progressively increased furosemide dosage * 13 months after presumptive diagnosis of CHF, immobilized again and found progressive disease, increased pimo and started spironolactone as well as activity restriction, free access to air conditioning * Good clinical control for subsequent 12 months, then increased RR and effort à changed to torsemide from furosemide * RR was progressively increasing 7 months later, increased torsemide dosage but no clinical improvement * Lemur was euthanized at 18yo and 33months following initial onset of CH

Answer 24

**THORACIC RADIOGRAPHY AND TRANSTHORACIC ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY IN CLINICALLY HEALTHY RING-TAILED LEMURS (LEMUR CATTA)** [*Blandine Houdellier*](https://bioone.org/search?author=Blandine_Houdellier)*,* [*Laurent Locquet*](https://bioone.org/search?author=Laurent_Locquet)*,* [*Jimmy H. Saunders*](https://bioone.org/search?author=Jimmy_H._Saunders)*,* [*Bart J.G. Broeckx*](https://bioone.org/search?author=Bart_J.G._Broeckx)*,* [*Tim Bouts*](https://bioone.org/search?author=Tim_Bouts)*,* [*Pascale Smets*](https://bioone.org/search?author=Pascale_Smets) [J. of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, 51(2)](https://bioone.org/journals/journal-of-zoo-and-wildlife-medicine/volume-51/issue-2):308-320 (2020). **Taxonomy**: Primates (order) → Lemuridae (family) → Lemur (genus) **Abstract:** Cardiac disease has been recognized as a major cause of death in captive nonhuman primates, which necessitates diagnostic (imaging) techniques to screen for and diagnose preclinical and clinical stages of possible cardiac conditions. **Echocardiography is currently the most commonly used diagnostic tool for evaluation of cardiac anatomy and function. Complete with thoracic radiography and blood levels of two cardiac biomarkers, N-terminal probrain natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) and cardiac troponin T (cTnT), it gives an extensive examination of the cardiorespiratory system**. The purpose of this cross-sectional cohort study is to describe normal thoracic anatomy using thoracic radiography, and to provide normal values for echocardiographic measurements in 20 ring-tailed lemurs (*Lemur catta*). Additionally, cardiac biomarkers were determined. Three radiographic projections of the thoracic cavity and a complete transthoracic echocardiography were performed in 20 clinically healthy ring-tailed lemurs during their annual health examinations. Similar standard right parasternal and left apical echocardiographic images were obtained as described in dogs and cats and normal values for routine two-dimensional (2D-), time-motion (M-) and Doppler mode measurements were generated. Furthermore, a noninvasive smartphone base ECG recording and blood concentrations of cardiac biomarkers were obtained. Other radiographic measurements are provided for the skeletal and respiratory systems such as the trachea to inlet ratio and tracheal inclination. Knowledge of the normal radiographic thoracic and echocardiographic anatomy and function are fundamental for the diagnosis and follow-up of cardiac disease in affected individuals and for species screening, and will be of added value in future research in and conservation of this endangered species. **Key Points:** * Dilated cardiomyopathy, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, fibrosing cardiomyopathy * Cardiac troponin T * intracellular protein,bound to the actin backbone within cardiomyocytes. As cells are damaged, leaks into circulation * Gene thought to be highly conserved across sps * Elevations = recent damage of cardiomyocytes (and cardiomyopathies) * cTnT can be elevated from non-cardiac causes (renal failure) * Median value for lemurs in this study = 269.7ng/L * NT-ProBNP below detection for all animals. (could mean test doesn’t work, or healthy animals have low value) * Increased secondary to myocardial stretch. Helps distinguish between cardiogenic and resp causes of dyspnea * Can be elevated w/ renal failure and inflammation not related to heart * 17 animals had trace valvular regurgitation * One animal had LV hypertrophy, aortic and tricuspid valve insufficiency, radiographic cardiomegaly * Cardiac markers were not significantly different for this individual compared to others in group * Lemurs have clavicles, first lumbar vertebrae had remnants of ribs * Case report of congestive heart failure in ring-tailed lemurs * Systolic volume higher in L apical view vs. R parasternal view **Take Home Message:** Ring tailed lemurs: Normal thoracic rads, normal echo parameters, cTnT was elevated in all individuals (not different between one individual with cardiac disease and other healthy), NT-proBNP not measurable.

Answer 25

**The effects of olfactory stimulation on the behavior of captive ring‐tailed lemurs (Lemur catta).** Baker B, Taylor S, Montrose VT. Zoo biology. 2018;37(1):16-22. Ring-tailed lemurs reside in many animal collections worldwide. Lemur welfare may be a cause of concern due to some captive individuals exhibiting stereotypic behavior. Despite these concerns, there has been little exploration of methods of environmental enrichment for ring-tailed lemurs. Olfactory stimulation can enhance captive animal welfare by encouraging species-typical behaviors, enhancing behavioral diversity, and decreasing stereotypic behaviors. We aimed to investigate the effects of olfactory stimulation via lavender, peppermint, coconut, and prey odor upon the behavior of eight captive ring-tailed lemurs. We exposed the lemurs to six individual odor conditions (odor control, novel object control, lavender, peppermint, coconut, and Morio worms) and observed them for 4 hr a day for 3 days with an intervening period of 4 days between conditions. We recorded the lemurs’ behavior under each condition using instantaneous scan sampling. We found significant effects of olfactory stimulation on the ring-tailed lemurs’ behavior in the initial analysis but these did not survive correction for multiple testing. Overall, while our findings are suggestive of a general effect of olfactory stimulation on the captive ring-tailed lemurs they did not indicate a marked influence of olfactory condition. However, further investigation with a larger sample size and more biologically relevant odors may be beneficial to fully examine potential effects of olfactory stimulation in captive lemurs. Key Points - Changes found when exposed to any scent but no difference found between scents - No effect of olfactory stimulation on feeding behavior or one-way grooming - With scent: higher levels of resting/sleeping behavior, locomotion - Without scent: more sitting, foraging, drinking, self-grooming, mutual grooming, chasing behavior, scent-marking, vocalization, and vigilance Conclusions - Providing olfactory enrichment had a general effect on behavior but no difference found between different scents

Answer 26

ZB 2020 39(5) 334-344 **Daily lettuce supplements promote foraging behavior and modify the gut microbiota in captive frugivores** Abstract: For captive primates, greater provisioning of leafy greens or foliage can promote natural foraging behavior while boosting fiber intake. Recalcitrant fiber, although minimally available to endogenous metabolism, is readily fermented into nutrients by gut microbes. Whereas most primates in captivity consume fiber‐limited diets and harbor imbalanced gut microbiota compared to their wild conspecifics, the importance of fiber provisioning to primate gut microbiota has predominately been studied in folivores. We, therefore, determined if commercial lettuce could be used to encourage foraging behavior and modify the gut microbiota of captive frugivores. We provisioned ruffed lemurs (Varecia rubra and V. variegata) with romaine lettuce, on top of the standard dietary fare, for 10 consecutive days. Before and across the period of lettuce supplementation, we collected observational data of animal feeding and fecal samples for microbiome analysis, determined via amplicon sequencing. The ruffed lemurs and their gut microbes responded to lettuce provisioning. In particular, younger animals readily ate lettuce and showed no decline in consumption across study days. When controlling for the effects of host species and social‐group membership, lettuce consumption shifted the composition of the gut microbiome away from each lemur's own baseline, an effect that became stronger as the study progressed. In the final study days, Ruminococcaceae UCG‐008 and Akkermansia, microbes typically and respectively associated with fiber metabolism and host health, were significantly enriched in the consortia of lettuce‐provisioned subjects. Ultimately, the routine offering of lettuce, leafy greens, or foliage to captive frugivores may benefit animal wellbeing. Intro - Among the biggest challenges in zoo welfare and conservation biology is determining the optimal diets to feed endangered wildlife maintained in captivity - For primates, in particular, a growing concern relates to the discrepancy between dietary plant fibers and sugars - Whereas recalcitrant plant fibers are abundant in the diets of many wild primates (stemming from their consumption of foliage, and unripe, seedy, or pulpy fruits), captive primates tend to be provisioned with ample orchard produce that has been artificially selected to be sugar dense - Increased recalcitrant fiber can regulate sugar absorption and modify the gut microbiome - Goal of this study: to determine if commercial lettuce could be used to encourage foraging behavior and modify the gut microbiota of captive frugivores Results - The ruffed lemurs routinely consumed provisioned lettuce across the study - older animals consumed lettuce far less frequently than did their younger counterparts. - Spent more time foraging stalks than leaves - At the phylum level, the gut microbiome of DLC ruffed lemurs comprised predominantly microbes from Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, and Proteobacteria, with lesser contributions from Spirochaetes and Verrucomicrobia - Although all lemurs were fed the same diet, baseline microbiome varied by species -- all red‐ruffed lemurs had greater representation from Bacteroides and an unassigned genus within the Lachnospiraceae family, whereas all black‐and‐white ruffed lemurs had a greater representation of Prevotella 2 - Also found that the lemurs’ gut microbiomes clustered by social group - When lemur hosts were fed lettuce daily, their gut microbiomes responded, although the effects were minor–no effects on any measure of alpha diversity - When restricted to to intra‐individual comparisons and controlled for the effects of lemur, social group, and species identities, some patterns emerged - In the early period, compared to both the baseline and late periods, an unnamed genus from the Tenericutes phylum were enriched in the lemurs’ gut consortia. - In the late period, compared to both the baseline and early periods, two genera were enriched in the consortia of all supplemented subjects: Akkermansia and Ruminococcaceae UCG‐008 Discussion - For frugivorous primates in captivity, we show that lettuce can be used as a daily dietary item that functionally serves to boost recalcitrant fiber intake and modify gut microbiome structure. - Whereas some of the ruffed lemurs’ dominant microbes can be linked to frugivory, like Prevotella that reflects noncellulolytic fiber metabolism,, the abundance of Lachnospiraceae and Ruminococcaceae members highlight the potential for the lemurs’ consortia to metabolize more recalcitrant fibers. - One such taxon from Ruminococcaceae was enriched in the lemurs’ consortia following consistent lettuce provisioning. - The other taxon that bloomed as a consequence of prolonged lettuce provisioning, Akkermansia, provides insight into the potential health benefits of lettuce as an enrichment item. -- Akkermansia resides in the mucus layer of the intestines where it interacts with the immune system and affects gut barrier function -- This taxon is known for its inverse relationship with metabolic disorders like host obesity, glucose intolerance, diabetes, and gut inflammation

Prosimians Flashcards

(50 cards)