PSYC 2018 - Quiz

Question 1

What is a variable?

Answer 1

Any characteristic of the organism, environment, or research situation that can vary
Well defined
ex= age, temperature

Question 2

What is an abstract

Answer 2

abstract (constructs)
anxiety, depression

Question 3

Types of Variables

Answer 3

Independent (IV)
Manipulated by researcher and has more than one level
Important IV in psychology is subject variable
can not be changed (logistically or ethically)
Dependent (DV)
Measure of behaviour (what the participant does)
Experimental designs (effect of iv on dv)
Non-experimental designs (association between iv and dv)
Confound
“Confuses” the study
Cannot be separated from the IV ( or accounted for)
when you get your results you don’t know what they mean = cause that you forgot a very important aspect
ex doing a hearing test of a reading test befor hand

Question 4

What are the four Measuring behaviour

Answer 4

nominal
ordinal
interval
Ration

Question 5

Nominal Scales

Answer 5

“Name”
Distinct categories (no specific order)
Least amount and least precise (just category)
inal scale study
”Is a woman more likely to give her phone number to a man if the man is accompanied by a dog?” (Gueguen & Coccotti, 2008)
Field study: “Attractive” man with or without dog approaches woman
Phone number given 35% vs 11%

Question 6

Ordinal scales

Answer 6

Distinct categories in rank order
Can’t quantify magnitude of difference

Question 7

Interval Scales

Answer 7

Most used in psychology research
Numerical ordered intervals so can compare but no clear 0 (no magnitude comparison)
For example
ex temperature
iq score
anxiety
does not mean absence of intelligence, temperature or anxiety, no such thing as 0

Question 8

Ratio scales

Answer 8

Numerical ordered intervals with a true 0 so can have ratio comparisons.
For example
number of words recalled
height
reaction time

Question 9

Mean, median, and mode

Answer 9

Measures of central tendency ( where’s the middle )
Mean
Average
Median
Middle value
Mode
Most common

Question 10

Evaluating measures

Answer 10

Reliability
consistency of a measure

Question 11

The relation between reliability and validity (dose it measure what it says it measures)

Answer 11

Validity = reliability
Reliability ≠ validity
Reliability And Validity

Question 12

Who To Measure

Answer 12

Sample vs Population
E.g., Children with ADHD

Question 13

Sampling

Answer 13

Taking proportion of population
Must be well-defined and unbiased
eg. student perceptions of university life
Representativeness can determine or limit inferences (consider if sample is biased)

Question 14

Why Sample?

Answer 14

Economics
Time
Manageability and control

Question 15

Types of sampling

Answer 15

Non-probability (not random)
Convenience or Haphazard
Quota
Purposive
Read the other two from the text
Snowball

Question 16

Purposive (random)

Answer 16

Type of convenience sampling
Based on certain characteristic
Typical group of _______
Problems?
Researcher bias

Question 17

Snowball

Answer 17

aka Network, Chain Referral, Network Sampling
Ask two participants and so on
Useful for small or stigmatized
Problems?
sample basis (lack of generalizability)
ethical issues (confidentiality, freedom to participate)

Question 18

Probability (random)

Answer 18

Simple random
Systematic
Stratified random
Proportionate Stratified
Cluster

Question 19

Stratified random

Answer 19

Population divided in subgroups
Equal random from each

Question 20

Proportionate Stratified

Answer 20

Random from each subgroup based on proportion in population

Question 21

Cluster

Answer 21

Clusters of individuals or naturally occurring groups
Sampling

Question 22

The Validity of Research

Answer 22

Internal validity= truth in the study
External validity= truth in real life

Question 23

Internal validity

Answer 23

Methodologically sound and confound-free
IV and DV
not due to uncontrolled factor
Is DV due to IV? Confounding variable? Both?
low internal validity
Internal validity means ruling out other variables

Question 24

Threats to Internal Validity

Answer 24

History (Time-related variable)
Maturation (Time-related variable / Participant variable)
Selection Bias (Participant variable)
Attrition (Time-related variable)
Environmental variable- read in textbook

Question 25

History

Answer 25

Unplanned, uncontrollable event outside the study that affects the DV More likely in studies that continue over long period any event that is out of your control that affects your independent variable sometimes researchers cant do anything about it Example Does an anti-smoking campaign reduce smoking? increase in cigarette tax find decreased smoking did anti smoking campaign work? Example Program for test anxiety in first year university students

Question 26

Maturation

Answer 26

Natural processes in participants during study that affects DV \ (development, boredom) More likely in studies that continue over long period more experience over time, changes that occur over time with the individual Example Program to increase complexity of play between 4 and 9 years find more complex play in 9 year olds did program increase complexity Example Program for test anxiety in university students

Question 27

Selection bias

Answer 27

Participants “selected” into groups in unequal way Groups in a study must be equal in all ways except for IV Example Study on physical aggressiveness group 1= football, rugby, hockey group 2= chess players

Question 28

Ulcers in “executive” monkeys (Brady et al., 1958) “Executive” monkey vs. Control monkey mild shocks to feet every 20 seconds both had lever but only “executive” could stop shocks found “executive” monkey had ulcers but control monkey did not “Executive” monkey study widely reported Closer examination of procedure revealed selection bias “Executive” group = Learned lever press quickly (more sensitive to shock / higher levels of emotion Weiss (1968) replicated with better controls found opposite result “executives” developed fewer ulcers than those with no control

Question 29

Attrition

Answer 29

Participant mortality Participant drops out Problematic if pattern particular characteristics more in experimental than control Group left may not be equivalent to group that started out Example Weight loss program starts with 50 participants and ends with 30 ( each lost 5 lbs no side effects) What about the 20 that left maybe withdrew after losing 25

Question 30

External Validity

Answer 30

Extent to which research generalizes to other contexts (real life ) Externally valid studies generalize to other populations generalize to environments

Question 31

Other Populations

Answer 31

Why is it important that findings in a study generalize to other groups of people? eg. different age education level ses Analysis of participants in all empirical studies 2003 – 2007 (Arnett, 2008) 68% from U.S. 67% of U.S. and 80% of other countries were…? 67% of U.S. and 80% of other countries were…? But it depends… When can we generalize? basic process like prescription memory and attention When should we question generalizability? process affected by culture = emotions associated with personal achievement

Question 32

Other Environments

Answer 32

Generalizing results to different settings particular criticism for lab studies But it depends… eg= basic process in memory What about real life situations? Ecological validity (Neisser, 1976) Cognitive psychology eyewitness testimony, long term learning of school subject Social psychology eg= interpersonal attraction using speed dating

Question 33

Other Times

Answer 33

Generalizing results to other points in time For example Studies on conformity by Solomon Asch in 1950s conservative values dominant conformity & obedience to authority valued in american society

Question 34

Conformity

Answer 34

Organization or group (“Go along with it”) Alter behaviour as result of group pressure Asch (1950s) “Perceptual judgment” study which comparison line matchers standard ? unknow to participant all others in group are confederates 37% on average 75% at least once Asch (1955) and others Social factors that influence conformity Replication with brain imaging (Berns et al., 2005) In general Basic process (e.g., cognition) > Social processes

Question 35

A Note of Caution about External Validity

Answer 35

Not all research with low external validity is “invalid” For example Laboratory studies on false memories (Roediger & McDermott, 1995) pillow, nap, but not sleep recall “sleep” not on the list sometimes people remember with confidence something they did not experience important and relevant for eyewitness testimony even through lab production , eyewitness testimony External validity increases if: Generalize to other populations Generalize to other environments Generalize to other times BUT … external validity of psychological knowledge not determined by single study Accumulates over time, with replication and extension internal validity more critical than external validity

Question 36

A final note on Internal and External Validity

Answer 36

Goal of any research study is to maximize internal and external validity But have to be balanced and usually is a trade-off Purpose or goals help decide which validity more important

Question 37

Variable

Answer 37

Anything that can be measured and can differ across entities or across time. * Can be well-defined (e.g., age, temperature) or abstract (constructs; e.g., intelligence, excitement, aggression)

Question 38

Successive Measurements

Answer 38

compare scores from two successive measurements (test-retest reliability)

Question 39

Simultaneous Measurements:

Answer 39

measuring via direct observation – two or more observers simultaneously record measurements (inter-rater reliability)

Question 40

Internal Consistency: s

Answer 40

split the items in half and score each group then look at the agreement between the two scores (split-half reliability)

Question 41

Face Validity

Answer 41

does the measurement technique look like it measures the variable that it claims to measure?

Question 42

Construct Validity

Answer 42

Based on many research studies that use the same measurement procedure. It requires that the scores obtained from a measurement procedure behave exactly the same as the variable itself.

Question 43

Concurrent Validity:

Answer 43

are the scores from your new measure directly related to the another, better established, measure?

Question 44

Predictive Validity

Answer 44

does the measurement of your construct accurately predict behaviour?

Question 45

Convergent Validity

Answer 45

two methods of measuring the same construct produce strongly related scores.

Question 46

Divergent/Discriminant Validity

Answer 46

differentiate between two different constructs by measuring both constructs and showing there is little or no relationship between the two measurements

Question 47

Scales of Measurement (NOIR)

Answer 47

* Nominal + Distinct categories without specific order (e.g., academic major) * Ordinal + Distinct categories in rank order (e.g., first place, second place, third place in a race) + No consistent difference or cannot determine the magnitude of the difference between categories * Interval + Numerically ordered intervals but no true 0 (e.g., temperature in degrees Celsius) + Can’t make ratios statements – can’t say that 40℃ is twice as hot as 20℃ * Ratio + Numerically ordered intervals with true 0 (e.g., temperate in degrees Kelvin)

Question 48

Non-Probability Sampling

Answer 48

Convenience or haphazard sampling * Available, meet some of the characteristics, recruited non-randomly * E.g., an existing subject pool; mall surveys Purposive sampling * Specifically recruited Quota sampling * Trying to reach a specific proportion (e.g., 60% female) but not randomly seeking out participants to match criteria (based on convenience) Snowball sampling * Based on referrals, networks of friends, other students

Question 49

+ Correlational

Answer 49

describe relationships

Question 50

Experimental

Answer 50

explain relationships

Question 51

explain relationships

Answer 51

describe relationships (with an attempt to explain)

Question 52

Nonexperimental

Answer 52

- describe relationships