PSYC3505 midterm Flashcards
(142 cards)
1
Q
Diagnostic systems
A
categorize behaviour problems; and to provide guidelines for identification, diagnosis, and treatment
2
Q
Determiners of abnormal behavior
A
- Behaviours that are not just atypical but harmful
- Behaviours that are developmentally inappropriate
- Cultural Norms, Gender Norms, Situational Norms
- Role of the Adult
- Changing views of Abnormality
3
Q
prevalence
A
a measure of the total number of cases of disease in a population
4
Q
prevalence depends on:
A
- The definition of the disorder: makes use of standardized scales or formal diagnostic criteria
- Population sampling: prevalence may be based on clinical or community samples
5
Q
Stressors that could cause behavioral abnormality
A
- chronic poverty
- increase in inequality
- lower class status
- family dynamics
- homelessness
- immigrant family stress
- addictions
- child abuse
6
Q
the developmental psychopathology perspective
A
- blends developmental psychology with clinical child and adolescent psychology with paediatric psychiatry
- studies the original and developmental course of disordered behaviour including individual adaptions and success
7
Q
Casual factors of psychopathology
A
necessary: factor must be present
sufficient: can be responsible alone
contributing: not necessary/sufficient but may add to effects
8
Q
psychopathology …
A
depends on the identification of multiple variables that affect development and the environment that surrounds it
9
Q
pathways of development
A
path 1: stable adaptation
path 2: stable maladaptation
path 3: reversal of maladaptation
path 4: decline of adaptation
path 5: temporal maladaptation
10
Q
path 1: stable adaptation
A
few environmental adversities; few behaviour problems; good self worth
11
Q
path 2: stable maladaptation
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chronic environmental adversities
12
Q
path 3: reversal of maladaptation
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important life change creates new opportunity
13
Q
path 4: decline of adaptation
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environmental or biological shifts bring adversity
14
Q
path 5: temporal maladaptation
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can reflect transient experimental risktaking
15
Q
Mediator model
A
the mediator must cause a higher statistical correlation between dependent and independent variables
16
Q
moderator model
A
moderators test the effect of a moderator variable on the relationship between an independent variable and dependant variable
17
Q
equifinality
A
refers to diverse paths and factors which result in the same outcome (multiple different circumstances all cause depression)
18
Q
multifinality
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identifies that the same experiences may result in multiple different outcomes (divorce leads to depression, anxiety, and aggression)
19
Q
risk factors
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precede an impairment and increase the chance of a disorder
20
Q
protective factors
A
the opposite of risk factors; are personal or situational variables that reduce the chance of psychopathlogy
21
Q
resilience
A
defined as a relatively positive outcome- in the face of significant adviser or traumatic experiences
22
Q
adverse childhood experiences study
A
- In Phase 1 (of 2) individuals who completed standardized
medical evaluations at the Health Appraisal Clinic between
August 1995-March 1996 were sent questionnaires - The ACE Study questionnaire collected information on
Adverse Childhood Events
23
Q
why do some succeed at resilience and others dont
A
persistence, courage, strength of character, individual characteristics, family characteristics, social/community characteristics
24
Q
Attachment
A
- socio-emotional bond between an infant and their parent/significant caregiver
- typically develops in infancy (7-9 months)
- viewed as biologically hard wired in both infant and caregiver
25
types of attachment
secure: sad to leave parent, easy to calm down
insecure avoidant: impartial
insecure resistant: super hard to calm down, extremely sad when parents leave
disorganized: on and off behaviors, reluctant
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temperament
the child's disposition; a product of complex interactions between biology and environment over time
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three types of temperament
- easy: good at social situations; easy going
- slow-to-warm: takes time to get comfy; a bit slow
- difficult: hard to deal with; stubborn
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emotional regulation
expressiveness, understanding, regulation/dysregulation
- individual differences in threshold and intensity to emotional experiences
- gives clues to level of distress and sensitivity to environment
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social cognitive processing
how social situations within the social environment are understood and interpreted
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forebrain
hypothalamus (basic urges), amygdala (emotion regulation), cerebral cortex (occipital, parietal, temporal, and frontal cortexes)
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brain development
- overabundance of nerve cells generated
- axons migrate
- genes determine axons trajectory and connections to target cells
- more axons than target cells can accomodate
- selective pruning starts
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synaptic pruning
the action of experience that results in the consolidation of circuits and the pruning of unnecessary synapses
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prenatal influences on the developing CNS
- poor maternal diet and stress
- drugs and alcohol
- medications
- radiation and environmental contaminants
- disease
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perinatal influences on the developing CNS
- medications during child birth
- complications during labour
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postnatal influences on the developing CNS
- accidents
- illness
- malnutrition
- accidental poisoning
36
genetics
genetic material is contained in all cells - contains chromosomes (contain DNA)
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genotype and phenotype
genotype: actual gene makeup
phenotype: expression of gene makeup
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single gene inheritance
- dominant gene or recessive gene
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multiple gene inheritance
- heritability
- twin studies-shared and non-shared environmental influences
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gene environmental interactions
a differential sensitivity to experience based on your genotype
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gene-environment correlation
based on genetic differences in exposure to environments
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passive
parents pass both genes and gene-related environment t their offspring
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reactive
reflect child's genetic makeup and others reactions to the gene-related characters
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active
based on child's genetic endowment and the child's selection gene-related experiences
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operant conditioning
recognizes that positive consequences of a behaviour will strengthen it and a negative consseuqence will weaken it
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positive reinforcement
presented. increases the bahaviour
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negative reinforcement
withdrawn. increases the behaviour
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punishment
decreases the behaviour
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generalization
extends to new behaviour
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discrimination
predictive of response
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shaping
rewards close approximations- to establish behaviour
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observational learning
- Albert Bandura identified that problem behaviors can be
acquired through observation of a model
- To learn a new behavior pattern by imitating the performance of someone else
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cognitive process
Individuals perceive their experiences, construct concepts or
schemas that represent their experience, sort information in
memory and employ their understanding to think about and act in the world
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cognitive-behaviour model
holds that behaviours are learned, and maintained by their interactions of internal cognitions and emotions with external environmental events. maladaptive cognitions = maladaptive behaviour
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cognitive structures
are schema for representing information that are constructed from experience
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cognitive content
is information stored in the cognitive structure
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cognitive products
structures/content and processes interacting with events
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cognitive distortions
are inaccurate thought processes that are dysfunctional
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the CBT model
1. identify the problem
2. thoughts
3. feelings
4. behavior
5. body talk
6. choices
7. choose it or lose it
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sociocultural context
ecological models include the family, community, and culture, this model is interactive across all levels
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the family context
parenting styles (attitudes, goals, and patterns of parenting practices that affect the outcomes for children)
- two major dimensions: degree of control, and degree of acceptance
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parenting styles
authoritarian, authoritative, permissive, neglectful
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child maltreatment
an extreme failure to provide adequate parenting
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child abuse
the violence, mistreatment, or neglect that a child or adolescent may experience while in the care of someone they either trust or depend on
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The Canadian department of justice
1. physical abuse
2. sexual abuse and exploitation
3. neglect
4. emotional abuse
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observation and measurement
researchers must provide an operationalized definition of the behaviour or experimental manipulation being studied (direct observation, standardized test, self-reports, etc.)
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validity
the correctness, soundness, or appropriateness, of the scientific finding
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internal validity
the extent to which the explanation is judged to be correct or sound
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external validity
the extent to which the findings can be applied to other situations or whether the results are generalizable
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content validity
refers to whether the content of a measure corresponds to the content of the attribute of interest
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construct validity
refers to whether a measure corresponds to the construct (concept) underlying the attribute of interest
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face validity
refers to whether a measure, on its surface, seems appropriate to the attribute of interest
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concurrent validity
refers to whether the scores on a measure correlate with scores on another acceptable measure of the attribute of interest
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predictive validity
refers to whether the scores on a measure predict later scores on another acceptable measure of the attribute of interest or other outcomes of interest
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reliability
other researchers must be able to perform the same exact experiment under the same conditions, producing similar and consistent observations and measurements
76
naturalistic observation research
involves observing individual in the "real world"
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descriptive research
observational and involves a single case study
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non-experimental research
explores relationships, no manipulative variables
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experimental research
manipulate variables
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randomized experimental research
subjects are allocated into groups randomly
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quasi-experimental research
subjects are not randomly assigned
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the case study
a descriptive, non-experimental method. it focuses on the individual, detailed report of the person and treatment used, provides a hypothesis, and tries to bridge gaps between research and practice (poor reliability, validity, and generalizability)
83
correlational studies
non-experimental studies that describe the relationship between two variables without exposing the participants to manipulation
(positive correlation, down to up left to right) (negative correlation, up to down left to right)
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single case experimental designs
experimental manipulation with a single participant
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reversal designs
subject is evaluated at a baseline before intervention, exposed to intervention, then is evaluated during another baseline period
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multiple baseline designs
when reversal designs are not appropriate, more than one behaviour is of interest, same behaviour in different settings, multiple participants
87
cross-sectional research
often a number of different ages at the same time point are samples
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retrospective longitudinal research
interested in past events, may look at a disorder and inquire about characteristics at an earlier age, may examine data that has already been collected (past records, questions = limited)
89
retrospective case-control study
one group that is presently diagnosed with a disorder is compared to another group without the disorder - used to seek hypotheses about predictors or causes of the disturbance
90
prospective longitudinal research
permits the examination of developmental changes, and examines newly emerging disorders, risk factors, gender effects, etc
91
qualitative research
- utilizes principles of naturalistic observations - recorded as narratives
- usually involves focus groups, interviews, in-depth case studies, life histories
- collects non-numerical information
- categories and themes arise from the data, instead of being set a priori
92
ethical guidelines for research
1. Belmont report (USA)
2. the American and Canadian psychological association
3. the declaration of helsinki
4. international registration of clinical trials (worldwide)
93
the tri-council policy statement
1. the Canadian institute of health research (CIHR)
2. the natural sciences and engineering research council (NSERC)
3. the social sciences and humanities research council (SSHRC)
- 3 core principles are respect for the persons, concern for welfare, and justice
94
internal ethics board
to adhere to the policies, universities must establish an institutional review board (IRB, MREB, HiREB) - they consider issues such as consent, harm, etc.
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respect for the persons (TCPS-2)
Recognizes that the intrinsic value of human beings and the respect and consideration that they are due:
- It is unacceptable to treat individuals solely as means to an end (a research goal)
- The welfare and integrity of the participant take priority over all else
- The principle of research for person guides:
1. How consent by research participants is sought
2. How participant autonomy is considered in research design
3. How the dignity of the individuals who lack autonomy is respected
96
concern for welfare (TCPS-2)
Recognize that research participation can affect the welfare of an individual or group
- Need to consider:
1. Health, economic, and social circumstances of participants
2. Privacy and control of personal information
3. The treatment of human biological materials according to the consent of the donor
97
free and informed consent
- Most ethical guidelines require that participants give voluntary informed consent
- Part of the respect for individuals. Most often involves obtaining written consent
- Included in the consent procedure:
1. Participants need to know the purpose of the research
2. The procedures, risks and benefits
3. To know their right and options to refuse or withdraw at anytime
98
voluntary informed consent
Assumes:
1. Children cannot fully understand the issues
2. Children cannot make proper informed consent
Therefore, until children have researched the legal age of consent the legal guardian consents on their behalf
99
consent: child issues
Considerations:
1. Limits on the information that is shared
2. Detailed consent about what will be shared
3. Information that might impact the child’s health or wellbeing
100
confidentiality
- Research may involve personal information and details the individual would not wish to share
- Confidentiality ensures that the individual can choose how much information is available to others
101
safeguards to confidentiality
1. Any background data/ clinical data electronic data is anonymized
2. All recorded data is identified by a case ID
Ethics in Research
3. Confidential means that access to the data is restricted to those individual that the subject has given consent
102
nonmaleficence
Ethical principal of Do No Harm- No serious physical, psychological, legal, or economic harm should be done to the participant
103
beneficence
Refers to actions that promote the well-being of others out of respect for individuals, beneficence should be maximized
104
classification
the delineation of major diagnostic categories and dimensions of behavioral disorders
1. Clear, well-defined categories or dimensions
2. Be able to communicate information to other professionals
3. Be able to discriminate one disorder from another
4. Be able to demonstrate that the category or dimension actually exists—> features occur regularly, in a number of situations, and can be measured by a number of methods
105
dimensions
can occur in varying degrees (ex. anxiety)
106
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5)
Clinically derived that was based on the consensus of clinicians regarding:
1. Concepts of a “disorder”
2. Diagnostic criteria
- Uses a categorical approach
- Different between typical and pathological = categorical —> based on type of behavioural expression and not the degree
Kraepelin in 1883
107
Classification
- DSM 5 is organized in groups of related disorders
Neurodevelopmental Disorders
1. Intellectual Disabilities
2. Communication Disorders
3. Autism Spectrum Disorders
4. Attention-Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder
5. Specific Learning Disorder
6. Motor Disorders
7. Tic Disorders
108
criticisms of DSM-5
- Reliability (Consistency): There is consensus that recent versions of the DSM are better
with symptoms based on criteria that vary with the disorder. For example, trained
interviewers have higher reliability
- Validity (Correctness): Concerns over its utility. For example, is it a good description of
clinically significant differences in psychological functioning, concerns over the need to link
treatments and etiology, and concerns over culture and gender issues
109
clinical unstructured interviews
the clinician determines what is asked and the order of the questions (i.e. developmental history, presenting problems)
110
semi-structured interviews
fixed order for questions, how the questions are posed, and the way the responses are recorded (i.e. vineland adaptive behaviour scale 2)
111
structured interviews
the interviewer asks the same questions, fixed language, according to a fixed recording schedule
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observational assessments
behavioural observations, can inform treatment planning, observation system may require some training
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projective tests
- Rorschach tests, house tree person test
less common, based on psychoanalytic ideas about projections, may be used as a way to explore past experiences and present desires, ambiguous stimuli serve as a way of exploring these elements
114
intelligence and educational assessments
- evaluation of intellectual functioning
- WISC-V for 6-16 years
- WPPSI-3 for 2 years 6 months to 7 years 3 months
- WAIS for adults for ages 17+
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WISC-V
verbal comprehension, visual spatial, fluid reasoning, working memory, processing speed
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verbal comprehension
vocabulary, similarities, information, comprehension
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visual-spatial
block design, visual puzzle
118
fluid reasoning
matrix reasoning, figure weights, picture concepts, arithmetic
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working memory
digit span, picture span, letter-number sequencing
120
processing speed
coding, symbol search, cancellation
121
anxiety
a future-oriented emotion characterized by perceptions of uncontrollability and unpredictability over potential aversive events and a rapid shift in attention to the focus of potentially dangerous events or one's own affective response to these events
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fear
reaction to immediate or present threat; a reaction to specific stimulus
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worry
the cognitive components of anxiety, involving thoughts about possible negative outcomes that are difficult to control
124
separation anxiety disorder symptoms
Diagnosis must have 3 out of 8 symptoms
1. Show excessive distress when separated from attachment figure or home
2. Persistent worry about losing or harm happening to attachment figure
3. Persistent worry about events that will lead to separation from attachment figure
4. Persistent reluctance of refusal to go to school
5. Persistent refusal to go to sleep without being near attachment figure
6. Persistent fear of being alone without attachment figure
7. Repeated nightmares involving theme of separation
8. Repeated complaints of physical symptoms when anticipating or separated
from attachment figure
- symptoms present for 4 weeks and occur before 18 years
125
separation anxiety disorder
attachment figure must be present: mom, dad, caregiver, home
prevalence: on the order of 3-12%
retrospective data: show greater risk for panic disorder and agoraphobia
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specific phobias
Persistent fear of a specific object or situation that is unusual or excessive, beyond voluntary control, lead to avoidance, and interfere with normal functioning
- Subcategories: Animal, natural environment, injections, situational, other...
Behaviourally: Avoidance, panic, disgust
Cognitively: Child may inflate the outcome
Physiologically: Nausea, rapid heart rate, difficulty breathing
127
social anxiety disorder
* Fear of acting in an embarrassing or humiliating way in social or performance
situations
* Interferes significantly with the child’s normal routine, academic functioning, and social relationships
* Fear of social situations: speaking/ reading in public, initiating conversations, speaking to authority figures, and interacting in informal social situations
Behaviourally: Avoidance of social interactions
Cognitively: Concerns about embarrassment, negative evaluation
Physiologically: Somatic complaints
late to middle childhood, 3-4% in adolescents
128
generalized anxiety disorder
- Worry excessively and exhibit extensive fearful behavior
- Worries not focussed on specific objects or situations
* 2-14% of the community population
* Over diagnoses?
* Co-occurrence with other anxiety
disorders
129
panic attacks
a discrete period of intense fear or terry that has a sudden onset and reaches a peak quickly in 10 minutes or less.
- 3 types: unexpected panic attacks (uncued), situationally bound (cued), situationally disposed
130
unexpected panic attacks (uncued)
occur spontaneously with no apparent triggers
131
situationally bound (cued) panic attacks
panic attacks occur on almost all occasions where the child is exposed to the fears object or situation
132
situationally disposed panic attacks
a panic attack occurs on exposure to cue (not always). may also occur following exposer rather than immediately
133
panic disorder
- panic attacks can occur in the context of a number of different disorders
* Involves a number of unexpected panic attacks
* Individual is concerned that it will occur again without warning and significantly affect on behavior
- Subtypes: Panic Disorder with or without Agoraphobia
- 3-4% in adolescents
134
agoraphobia
is an attempt to avoid circumstances that are uncontrollable to potentially embarrassing
- Fear of having panic attacks in stations where escape is unavailable
- I.e. Terrified to leave the house
135
post-traumatic stress disorder
Requires exposure to a serious of traumatic event which the child shows an intense fearful reaction
- Symptoms
1. Re-experiencing
2. Avoidance
3. Arousal (for more than one month)
136
obsessive-compulsive disorder - obsessions
* Unwanted repetitive, intrusive thoughts, ideas, impulses, or images
* In school-aged children—> commonly involve fear of harm, separation concerns with symmetry/ correctness
* In adolescents—> includes obsessions as above but might also involve sexual, somatic, religious, and other preoccupations
137
obsessive-compulsive disorder
* Repetitive, stereotyped behaviors that the child feels compelled to perform
* Meant to reduce anxiety associated with an obsession GERMS (Obsession) —> Engage in Compulsion —> Reduced Anxiety
138
biological influences of anxiety disorders
Genetics
- Children with a family history of anxiety = increased
- Genetic loading may produce differences in neurotransmitter systems (i.e. serotonin and
GABA)
139
physiological influences of anxiety disorders
Hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis (HPA) and Amygdala
- Controls cortisol release
- Chronic elevations in cortisol are detrimental
140
temperament
The biologically based inherited differences in emotional behavioural style
141
Kagan 1997
Links anxiety disorders to temperament
- Behaviourally children are likely to withdraw from unfamiliar people or events
- Behavioral inhibited children show more fears
- Greater risk for developing anxiety disorders
142
anxiety assessments
Include considerations into the Tripartite Model of Anxiety
- Examines behavioral, cognitive, and physiological symptoms
1. Clinical Interviews (ex. structured interviews- kSADs or ADIS-CP)
2. Self-Report Measures
- MASC- Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children
- STAI- State-Trate Anxiety Inventory for Children
- Negative Affect Self-statement Questionnaire
