psych 108 midterm 1 Flashcards
(135 cards)
1
Q
cognitive pschology
A
The empirical investigation of mental processes and brain structures involved in acquiring, encoding, using, and storing information; what you see attend to, remember, know, interpret
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metacognition
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we may think about our own though processes, think about thinking
3
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zeitgeist
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time spirit, the ideas prevalent in a period and place, ex: decades and generations; Provides a mental set that defines how people see the issues
4
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mental set
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perspective and/or set of assumptions that define how people view a problem and what type of solutions you attempt, often constraining alternative approaches in some fundamental manner; define zeitgeist and drive researchers focus
5
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insight problems
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Problems that require overcoming some sort of mental set in order to solve
́ Typically associated with an “aha” experience
6
Q
examples of zeitgeist
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Structuralism
́ Functionalism
́ Behaviorism
́ Cognitive Psychology
́ Cognitive Neuroscience
7
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structuralism mental set
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The mind and its perceptions can be understood by analyzing those perceptions into their constituent components
8
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structuralism method
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introspection
9
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structuralism main proponent
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Wilhelm Wundt
9
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introspection
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looking inward at pieces of information passing through consciousness
10
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problems with introspection
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-Introspections can be wrong
-cannot introspect on all processes
-Different people get/ produce different results
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problems with reducing mind to structure
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overlooks dynamic processes
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functionalism mental set
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The mind is best understood by examining the processes of mind rather than its contents; focus on the functional value of psychological processes
13
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functionalism method
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introspection, observation, experiments
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functionalism proponents
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William James
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William James
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-American philosopher/psychologist at the turn of the century
́-Master of characterizing subjective experiences
́-coined the term “stream of consciousness” to emphasize that it is a process and not discrete elements
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functionalism problem
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heavy reliance on introspection
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associationism(behaviorism) mental set
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connectionistic, reductionistic, environmental
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connectionistic
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Learning results from the co-occurrence of events or actions that occur at the same time
19
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reductionistic
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Complex behavior can be explained by understanding
the simple associations on which it is based.
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environmental
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Assumes all aspects of behavior are learned
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behaviorism proponents
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locke, ebbinghaus, thorndike, skinner
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behaviorism mental set
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Reductionistic: Believed that an understanding of memory could be reduced to the formation of simple associations among nonsense syllables:
23
Q
ebbinghaus behaviorism procedure
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careful experimentation
́ developed first experimental examination of memory
́ quantified his results
́ demonstrated the viability of an experimental examination of memory
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nonsense syllable procedure
keep studying until two perfect reproductions
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measures of retention
recall, recollection, savings
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recall
try to remember studied items
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free recall
order is not important
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serial recall
recall in order studied
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recollection
Try to distinguish studied from non-studied items; recognition
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savings
Number of repetitions required to re-memorize a list
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serial positon curve(ebbinghaus)
Tend to remember the first and last items studied the best
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forgetting(ebbinghaus)
Forgetting curve; initially rapid, then slows down
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overlearning(ebbinghaus)
Additional rehearsals past mastery results in
- Slower forgetting
- Greater savings in relearning
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recent behaviorism mental set
Exclusive focus on behavior
́-Believed that internal representations were beyond the scope of science
-Limited to operationally defined behaviors
-All behavior can be understood in terms of a set of
relatively basic learning principles
́-All behaviors are learned
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primary principles
classical conditioning, operant conditioning
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classical conditioning
Associating a biological responses to la earned stimulus
- Bell causes salivary response
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operant conditioning
Associating a learned response to a learned stimulus ́
-Uses rewards & punishment to influence behavior
ex: Learn to clean your room for money
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behaviorism
The theory that behavior can be explained in terms of conditioning (classical and operant), without appeal to thoughts or feelings
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problems with behaviorism
-Not all associations are equally learnable
-There’s more to behavior than simple paired associations
-Learning is possible even if not personally reinforced
-Does not account for information processing
-channel capacity
-chunking
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channel capacity
upper limit on the amount of information that can be transmitted
-Led to the notion of capacity in human memory ́
-7 plus or minus 2
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chunking
-group input events
-apply new name
-remember name rather than input
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computer method
-Mental processes are similar to the operations of a computer.
́-Information progresses through the cognitive system in a series of stages, one step at a time.
́-Three of stages information processing
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short term memory(RAM) working memory
the capacity for holding, but not manipulating, a small amount of information in mind in an active, readily available state for a short period of time
-Limited capacity (7 +/- 2 items
-Fades quickly (within about 20-30 sec)
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long term memory (hard drive)
memory responsible for the storage of information for an extended period of time.
-Unlimited capacity
-Fades modestly (more slowly than short-term memory)
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sensory memory
brief storage of information from each of the senses.
-Very large capacity
-Fades very quickly (within milliseconds)
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sensation
Detecting sensory events (e.g. experiencing light hitting our eyes)
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perception
Interpreting sensory events (e.g. recognizing a flash of light as lightning)
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size constancy
Our perception of an object’s size remains relatively constant, even when we view the object from different distances.
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shape constancy
We perceive an object as having the same shape regardless of its orientation or the angle from which we view it.
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depth cues
Monocular or binocular sources of information that convey information about relative distance of objects
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gestalt psychologists
investigated the basic principles that allow us to understand which aspects of a visual scene belong together and which come from separate objects.
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gestalt psychology
Developed theories of perception based on the notion that the whole is more than the sum of its parts (this is the key idea behind their psychology).
-You can’t just look at individual objects in isolation.
-You must look at them in relation to each other to understand them.
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laws of perceptual organization
proximity, similarity, symmetry, closure
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proximity
objects that are near one another in space or time are perceived as belonging together
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similarity
items that are similar tend to be grouped together
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symmetry
objects which are symmetrical are more likely to be group together
-looking at an image and perceiving it as a whole figure instead of its individual parts
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closure
the mind may experience elements it does not perceive through sensation, in order to complete a regular figure; increase regularity
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figure ground segregation
A type of perceptual organization in which we identify a figure from the background.
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object recognition theories
template theory, feature theory
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template theories
Template theories: a miniature copy or template of each known pattern is stored in long-term memory
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problems with template theories
-Not adaptable (can’t explain how we understand new experiences)
-Imposes large storage requirements.
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feature theories
patterns consist of a set of specific features or attributes; pandemonium model; elementary features can combine to form multiple objects
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feature theories problems
Does NOT account for top- down processes.
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bottom up process
Process by which we construct a perception by analyzing
information falling on our receptors (e.g., on our retinas).
-Actual physical characteristics of stimulus drive perception (data-based perception)
realism
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realism
we see the world as it literally is; world is always perceived as it truly is
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top down process
Knowledge, expectations, or thoughts influence perception (e.g., changing “brainstorm” to “green needle” through your thoughts); ignores motion
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word superiority effect
We can identify a single letter more quickly and accurately when it appear in a meaningful word than when it appears alone or in a meaningless string of letters.
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change blindness
Failure to detect a change in an object or a scene; Top down processes interfere with noticing change in details
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change blindness blindness
People tend to not appreciate how vulnerable they are to change blindness
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intentional blindness
When we fail to notice when an unexpected but completely visible object suddenly appears.
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implications of inattentional and change blindness
overactive top down processing
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overactive top down processing
The visual system is fairly accurate in creating the "gist" or
general interpretation of a scene.
-conceptual understanding interferes with noticing changes of perceptual details, even very significant ones
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James Gibson's Ecological Approach to visual perception
Emphasis on how features of environment determine perception (i.e., bottom-up processes)
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invariances
aspects of the visual array that do not change (i.e., they’re “invariant,” or “don’t vary”
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optical flow patterns
information seems to expand outward from the point towards which one is moving; The ability to stay on course involves keeping the unchanging (invariant) center of the optical flow pattern centered on the desired destination.
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interaction of boot up and top down processes
Bottom-up processes
-Motion invariances allow detection of underlying structure
́ Top-down processes
-Knowledge influences perception
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paint light displays
Detect walking vs. running, and gender, weight, mood, with 10-15 lights
-Bottom-up processes: Motion invariances allow detection of underlying structure
-Top-down processes: Knowledge allow us to recognize the lights as human motion (and we can even detect gender, weight, and mood of a person!
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depth perception
A further illustration of interaction of bottom up and top down processing
- We often use our own experiences to infer depth from multiple visual cues
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monocular depth cues
Cues that can provide depth information with one eye closed
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binocular depth cues
cues that require both eyes
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linear perspective
Parallel lines appear to converge as they recede into the distance.
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aerial perspective
distant objects appear more hazy
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interposition
overlapped object appears further away
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shadows and shading
With a known light source shading and shadows can inform which object is closer to the light source.
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familiar size
Knowledge of the size of familiar objects used to gauge depth
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motion parallax
Closer target appears to move more quickly and in reverse direction to the observer’s movement
-Further target appears to move slowly in the same direction.
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binocular disparity
Images appear different to each eye as a function of object distance: This “disparity” provides depth info
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binocular convergence
Rotation of eyes indicates object distance
Large difference in rotation = close
small difference = far
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illusions
Illusions reveal constraints/biases on perception
́ Constraints are perceptual assumptions that we make ́ Usually correct but occasionally wrong
́ When wrong, illusion results
́ Illusions come from helpful processes
́ Without constraints, no perception at all!
́ Our perceptual system is biased to emphasize important aspects
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mueller lyer illusion
Left line must be farther away; this must mean it’s bigger than it appears.
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Shepard table illusion
Placement of the legs and table siding makes you see the table on the left as being longer than the table on the right
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contrast detection
We perceive objects relative to the other nearby objects
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color constancy
Color constancy: perceived color of objects remains relatively constant under varying illumination conditions
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shepard tone illusion
Auditory illusion of a tone that seems to continually ascend or descend in pitch, yet which ultimately gets no higher or lower
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expectancy effect
Expectations allow us to hear more than is specified,
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mcgurk effect
See GA
Hear BA
Experience DA
́-top down processes integrate perceptual and auditory cues leading to the experience of compromise phoneme
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attention
The concentration of awareness on some stimulus to the exclusion of other stimuli.
-attention is narrow
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limits of attention
Trying to attend to everything at once is more than the cognitive processes can handle.
* Instead, we selectively concentrate on important things and ignore less-important things.
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divided attention
Attempting to pay attention to several different things at the same time; multitasking
-people perform better when working on one task; takes time to reorient following a switch
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dichotic listening
-One message presented to left ear and a different message presented to right ear
* Shadow one of the messages
* People notice very little about the unattended message.
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dichotic listening findings
People miss some info from the unattended channel
-Same message, different times
-Changed language
People retain some info from the unattended channel
-Physical characteristics
-Tone of voice
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Broadbent's filter theory
Early selective filter allows people to attend to one channel based on physical characteristics
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problems with filter theory
1. Cocktail party phenomenon: People notice their own name in the unattended channel
́ 2. People follow the meaning in the unattended channel
́ These findings demonstrate that meaning is processed in unattended channel (not good for filter theory).
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treismans filter amplitude theory
Filter turns down the “volume” on unattended channel ́
-filter is not all-or-none
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Deutsch and Deutsch late selection theory
All incoming stimuli are processed, however quickly forget one channel
́ Evidence: People show evidence of processing the semantic content of the unattended channel even if they don’t remember it
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Perceptual load theory
Everyone has limited attentional capacity
-The amount of attentional capacity allocated to the main task (attended channel) depends on the perceptual load of the main task.
-Low perceptual load: hearing the numbers 1-10
-High perceptual load: listening to a lecture on quantum
mechanics
- Early selection occurs when load is high; late selection occurs when load is low
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unattended channel processing
depends on
1. The relevance of the unattended info
2. The demands of processing the attended info
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visual search
Find a target in a visual display with numerous distractors (e.g., Where’s Waldo)
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isolated
If the target differed from “distractors” with respect to a simple feature such as color, observers can quickly detect the target
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combined
When the distractor items force you to search for a combination of features (both green and T), visual search takes longer.
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variables influencing visual search
1. the isolated-feature/combined-feature effect
2. The feature-present/feature-absent effect.
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feature present feature absent effect
People can typically locate a feature that is present more quickly than a feature that is absent.
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automacity
-Occur without intention
-Relatively unconscious
-Consume no conscious resources
ex: riding a bike
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the stroop effect
say the color of the word not the the color the word says
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controlled processes
1. Require intention
2. Conscious
3. Consume resources
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conscious awareness
People have relatively complete access to some thought processes, but only limited access to other thought processes.
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three levels of consciousness
non-conscious, experiential conscious, meta-conscious/awareness
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non-conscious
Information that is below the surface of
awareness
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experiential conscious
ongoing experience; current contents of experience
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meta-conscious/awareness
One’s explicit understanding of the current contents of experience
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lucid dreaming
a type of dream wherein the dreamer becomes aware that they are dreaming.
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subliminal perception
The effects of stimuli that are presented below the threshold of awareness
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priming
Presentation of a priming word/object just before another word/object leads to facilitated processing of the second word/object if they are related
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unconscious priming
Automatic priming from one object to the next
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thought suppression
he attempt to keep thoughts and/or images out of consciousness
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rebound effect
Initial suppression of specific thoughts can produce an emergence of those thoughts after we stop trying to suppress them.
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translation dissociations
Meta-awareness misrepresents the contents of experience; Occurs when, in the process or reflection, individuals embellish, distort, or neglect aspects of their experience
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temporal dissociations
Experiences we have in the absence of meta-awareness
́-Occurs when individuals temporarily fail to take stock of their experience
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components of meta awareness
1. Unconscious tacit monitoring of cognitions
́ Occur continuously
2. Conscious experience
́ Continues continuously through waking hours
3. Meta-awareness only occurs intermittently
́ Spontaneously noticing lapses ́ Request of self-report
́ Natural introspection
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self caught mind wandering
Reported mind wandering every time they noticed it ́ Mind wandering with meta-awareness
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Probe-Caught Mind Wandering
Periodically pinged and asked “just now, were you mind
wandering?”
́ Mind wandering without meta-awareness
-Suggests mind wandering without meta-awareness is especially disruptive
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effects of alcohol
increases lapses
reduces awareness of lapses
increased unaware mind wandering
doubled frequency of probe caught mind wandering
reduced meta awareness(less self caught mind wandering)
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Bruner potter paradigm
Out of focus images more difficult to recognize if they are initially presented in a very out of focus level
-Very out of focus level creates a mental set that impairs identification
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