Psych 111 Exam 1 Flashcards
(233 cards)
1
Q
School of Thought
John Locke; all knowledge derived from sensory experience; mind is a blank state (tabula rasa)
A
Empiricism
2
Q
School of Thought
Wilhelm and Titichener; A method of introspection, interpretation and analysis of aspects of human cognition, behavior, culture, and experience. Relied on personal description of experience in response to stimulus; ex: what comes to mind when you say triangle?
A
Structuralism
3
Q
School of Thought
William James: Focuses on functions of the brain/mind and how they enable organisms to adapt, survive, and flourish (based on darwinism); ignored structure of mind and behavior
A
Functionalism
4
Q
School of Thought
John Watson & B.F. Skinner; Solely focused on observational behavior
Believed psychology should be an objective science that studied behavior without reference to mental process. Most psychologists agree with the first part, but not the second. Watson believed in no fundamental difference between human and animal behavior
A
Behaviorism
5
Q
School of Thought
uses behavior to reveal the mind; Cognitive Neuroscience = study of brain activity linked with cognition; cognitive psychology= scientifically explore ways we perceive, process, and remember information
A
Cognitive revolution
6
Q
Major Historical Figures
Dualism: body and mind were two separate things; body is observable; soul is observable only thru interaction with body, uniquely human
A
Descartes
7
Q
Major Historical Figures
empiricism; all knowledge derived from sensory experience; mind is a blank state (tabula rasa)
A
Locke
8
Q
Major Historical Figures
psychoanalysis; studied unconscious mind
A
Freud
9
Q
Major Historical Figures
study observable behavior; behaviorism; no fundamental difference between human and animal behavior; says that humans/infants are malleable, can turn them into anything regardless of background
A
Watson
10
Q
Major Historical Figures
study observable behavior; behaviorism; operant conditioning
A
Skinner
11
Q
Wilhelm Wundt and Titichener and Structuralism; A method of [blank], interpretation and analysis of aspects of human cognition, behavior, culture, and experience. Relied on personal description of experience in response to stimulus; ex: what comes to mind when you say triangle?
A
Introspection
12
Q
Type of Research Designs
In depth studies of one person/group in hopes of revealing things true of us all; shows what can happen; susceptible to researcher bias
A
Case studies
13
Q
Type of Research Designs
observe behavior in the real world; Natural settings
Primates, jane goodall
A
Naturalistic observation
14
Q
Type of Research Designs
ask a lot of people questions while avoiding biases
A
Surveys
15
Q
Type of Research Designs
how two things are related; positive, negative, or no correlation; doesn’t point to causation
A
Correlational studies
16
Q
Type of Research Designs
verify cause and effects w/ use of independent and dependent variable, control group, and treatment group; total control of setting but is expensive or could cause artificial situations
A
Experiments
17
Q
An organized set of principles that describes, predicts, and explains some phenomenon
A
Theories
18
Q
A specific testable prediction, often derive from a theory
A
Hypotheses
19
Q
randomly grouping people after you have randomly selected them; allows you to cancel out preexisting differences (gender, race, age)
A
Random assignment (of subjects)
20
Q
variable being manipulated
A
Independent variable
21
Q
variable being measured; affected by independent variable
A
Dependent variable
22
Q
any difference between the control group and experimental group other than the independent variable. if these are present, there is no telling if the independent variable made an effect on the dependent variable
A
Confound or confounding variable
23
Q
in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable
A
Experimental group
24
Q
group that is not being manipulated by the independent variable. neutral. allows experimenters to see if the independent variable is affecting the dependent variable.
A
Control group
25
a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1.00 to +1.00); detect naturally occurring relationships; to assess how well one variable predicts another
Correlation coefficient
26
"The Evil Dr. Zilstein"
Create two groups by manipulating levels of fear and anxiety.
One group was told that the shocks wouldn't be painful and there's nothing to worry about.
The other group was told they would be very painful.
Results: non anxious group choose more to wait alone than the anxious group.
Schacter study on anxiety and affiliation
27
a simple form of learning in which an organism eventually stops responding to a stimulus that is repeated over and over
Habituation
28
a type of learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus produces a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally produces a response
dogs salivate when they see food, so they began to salivate when they saw the person who started bringing the food
Classical conditioning (Pavlov)
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(something that reliably produces a naturally occurring reaction in an organism)
UCS: Unconditioned Stimulus
30
(a reflexive reaction that is reliably produced by an unconditioned stimulus)
UCR: Unconditioned Response
31
(a previously neutral stimulus that produces a reliable response in an organism after being paired with a unconditioned stimulus)
CS: Conditioned Stimulus
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(a reaction that resembles an unconditioned response but is produced by a conditioned stimulus)
CR: Conditioned Response
33
Just as we learn a response – learn an association – we can unlearn it (the gradual elimination of a learned response that occurs when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus)
Example: for a long time, you witness the mother buying candy during checkout so the child will stop screaming. Then, one day, you notice the mother refuses to buy the child candy. The child become increasingly upset when denied candy; however, a few weeks later, you see the mother and child at the store, and the child does not scream for candy
Extinction (of learned responses or associations)
34
In forward pairing, the CS (bell) precede the US (food)
Easiest conditioning
In simultaneous pairing, the US (food) and CS (bell) occur together
In backward pairing, the CS (bell) follows the US (food)
Most difficult
Timing of stimuli in classical conditioning
35
the tendency of a learned behavior to recover from extinction after a rest period
Spontaneous recovery
36
a response conditioned to a particular CS tends to be evoked by stimuli that are similar to the CS (the conditioned response is observed even though the conditioned stimulus is slightly different from the conditioned stimulus used during acquisition)
Generalization
37
if similar stimuli are paired with different UCS, the organism will learn the different associations (the capacity to distinguish between similar and distinct stimuli)
Discrimination
38
conditioned phobias (wanted to cause extreme fear reaction)
Exposed nine month old to a series of stimuli (white rat, rabbit, monkey, masks, fire). Initially no reaction, but when the same stimuli presented with a loud noise, Albert's response was fear.
Neutral Stimulus: The white rat
Unconditioned Stimulus: The loud noise
Unconditioned Response: Fear
Conditioned Stimulus: The white rat
Conditioned Response: Fear
Little Albert
39
anxiety disorders that involve excessive and persistent fear of a specific object, activity, or situation. may be learned through classical conditioning, in which a conditioned stimulus that is paired with an anxiety-evoking unconditioned stimulus itself comes to elicit a conditioned fear response.
Phobias
40
a type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli. Commonly used to treat phobias
Systematic desensitization
41
Any two things cannot be associated; Biological Preparedness
Limits of classical conditioning (Garcia and Koelling rat study)
42
not all associations are created equal; Species are predisposed to learn some kinds of associations and not others
Biological preparedness
43
Innate fears of certain things that were dangerous in our species past (snakes)
Elicit “ automatic” fear reactions
Hard to consciously control or avoid
Controlled by specialized neural circuits in the limbic system: amygdala and hippocampus
Fear modules
44
Behaviors followed by pleasant consequences are more likely to be repeated (Cats in puzzle boxes)
Law of effect (Thorndike)
45
B.F. Skinner; a type of learning in which the consequences of an organism's behavior determine whether it will be repeated in the future
Ex: A rat will press a bar 120 times per hour to get reward or avoid punishment
Operant conditioning (Skinner)
46
laboratory apparatus used to study animal behavior
Operant chamber (Skinner box)
47
any stimulus or event that functions to INCREASE the likelihood of the behavior that led to it (always brings more pleasant state; increases target behavior)
Reinforcement
48
bring about a pleasant state of affairs by fulfilling some biological need (food, water, air)
Primary Reinforcers
49
don't in and of themselves fulfill some biological need, but they are associated with some primary reinforcer
Ex: money, don't care about bills want the other stuff
Secondary/Conditioned Reinforcers
50
when a behavior is followed by an aversive stimulus. Punishment makes behavior less likely to occur
Punishment
51
Tells what not to do, but not what to do instead
Could be unintentionally reinforcing (child wants attention)
May lead to imitation of the punisher, aggression
Punishment becomes reinforces for punisher
More effective: stop rewarding undesirable behaviors and start rewarding desired ones
Limits of punishment
52
learning that results from the reinforcement of successive steps to a final desired behavior
Shaping
53
Linking behaviors in sequence for reinforcement
Chaining
54
# Schedules of reinforcement
behavior is reinforced every single time
Continuous Schedule
55
# Schedules of reinforcement
behavior is reinforced sometimes
Partial Schedule
56
# Schedules of reinforcement
strict number of responses
Fixed ratio Schedule
57
# Schedules of reinforcement
based on the amount of time that goes by (ex. Sale every Friday)
Fixed interval Schedule
58
# Schedules of reinforcement
random, very unpredictable
Variable ratio Schedule
59
# Schedules of reinforcement
random time set
Variable Interval schedule
60
accidental learning, example: learning how to speak your native language
Latent learning, cognitive map (Tolman) Page 284
61
Behaviors learned from parents/the people somebody is around all the time
Observation learning
62
children will become more aggressive if they see adults acting in such a manner
Bandura Bobo study
63
experiment with gulls. a species-specific behavior that is built into an animal's nervous system and triggered by specific stimulus
Fixed action patterns (gulls)
64
Unlearned knowledge. Said to be universal to all of humanity. Born with rather than learned through experience
Trade-offs learning vs innate knowledge
65
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system. can only hold a few items. attention determines what makes it to the next stage
Sensory memory
66
# Sensory Memory
Iconic
visual
67
# Sensory Memory
Echoic
auditory
68
Flash of matrix of letters for 50 milliseconds
Identify as many letters as possible
Participants typically remembered 4 letters
Sperling whole report procedure:
69
Flash a matrix of letters for 50 milliseconds
Participants are told to report one row at a time (eg bottom row)
Participants were able to report any row requested
Sperling Partial report procedure:
70
Digit span
short-term, immediate memory
71
Limited capacity (about 7 items);Take in from sensory and long term memory; Persists as long as it's rehearsed
Short term memory
72
organizing items into familiar, manageable, units; often occurs automatically
Chunking
73
Fed by short-term memory
Virtually unlimited capacity and duration
Getting into LTM takes effort and often retrieval practice
Long term memory
74
Processes used to store information in memory
Encoding
75
Processes used to maintain information in memory
Storage
76
Processes used to get information back out of memory
Retrieval
77
you have to generate an answer
In TOT example, I gave you definitions of obscure words, you had to recall the word
Recall Tests
78
don’t need to generate the answer
Shepherd’s study of visual memory, S’s viewed 612 pictures, then shown two pictures and asked to indicate which one they had seen previously
Recognition Test
79
Recall all the words you can from the list you saw previously
Ex: just tell me list of words i just said in any order
Free recall
80
Recall the names of all previous presidents in the order they were elected; Need to recall order as well as item names
Ex: recall a list in the right order
Serial recall
81
Give participants some clue to trigger recall
Pair associates, dish towel-locomotive, switch-paper, etc
Ex: two words not related, give clue to another (dish towel → locomotive)
Cued recall
82
Participants exposed to a word list then complete word puzzle; they’re unaware it is a memory test
Tests of implicit memory: (stem completion, word fragment completion)
83
high school yearbooks containing old student photos and names; Used 392 ex-high school students took 4 different memory tests.
free recall
photo recognition and asked to recall name
name recognition
name and photo matching
Up to 30 years after high school, the memory declined and then plateaued
Bahrick’s studies of very long term memory (permastore)
84
# Level of Processing Theory
Elaborating according to meaning leads to a strong memory; encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention
Deep Processing
85
# Levels of Processing Theory
emphasizes the physical features of the stimulus
The memory trace is fragile and quickly decays; Encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words
Shallow Processing
86
(criticism of levels of processing): Levels of processing are incomplete
Morris study and transfer appropriate processing
87
# Morris Study (criticism of levels of processing)
filling in the blank in a sentence (supposedly leads to better memory)
-Only works sometimes
Semantic Task
88
# Morris Study (criticism of levels of processing)
recalling something that rhymes with another
-works better than recognition task
Rhyming Task
89
our tendency to recall the first and last items in a series best, and the middle items worst
Serial position effect, Page 311
90
tendency to recall earlier words in a series
Primacy, Page 311
91
tendency to recall later words in a series
Recency, Page 311
92
Baddeley’s (Tripartite) model refers to the system or systems involved in the temporary storage of information in the performance of cognitive skills such as reasoning, learning, and comprehension
Working memory
93
when remembering the layout of a letter, verbally describing it was easier than pointing; when decoding sentences from memory it was easier to point than verbalize your response
Brooks interference study
94
Toscanini - an orchestra conductor who had such an amazing memory he could conduct hundreds of symphonies and operas from only remembering them.
Mnemonics: memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
Extraordinary memories (the mnemonist, Toscanini)
95
condition in which one type of stimulation evokes the sensation of another.
Ex: thinking of numbers and associating them with a color
Ex: Luria sees 87 as a fat woman and a man twirling his mustache
Sensory synesthesia
96
# Studies of visual memory
viewed 612 pictures, then shown two pictures and asked to indicate which one they had seen previously
(who)
Shepard
97
# Studies of visual memory
presented viewers with 10,000 images and they performed with 80% accuracy in subsequent recognition memory task
(who)
Standing
98
presents viewers with an array of false pennies and one correct penny. The viewers are asked to recall from memory which penny is correctly formatted. Many viewers have trouble recalling what the penny, and everyday item we use, looks like
The penny example: failures of memory
99
Immediate recall, then after day one 50% retention, then 31 days 20% retention
Ebbinghaus forgeting curve
100
despite performance decreases between practice sessions, learning proceeds more quickly during re-learning
Savings with relearning
101
# Factors that improve memory
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice
Spacing effect
102
# Factors that improve memory
accumulated body of data, information, and knowledge created in the course of an individual organization's existence.
Organization
103
# Factors that improve memory
matching two learning-related concepts results in improved memory
Matching learning
104
# Factors that improve memory
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading information
Testing
105
external, environmental factors; improved recall of specific episodes or information when the context present at encoding and retrieval are the same
Ex: study at 3PM, then perform better on test at 3PM
Context dependent memory
106
internal, physiological factors; memory retrieval is most efficient when an individual is in the same physical or conscious state as they were when the memory was formed
Ex: When studying happy, then took test in happiness, increased test score
State Dependent memory
107
Mood-congruent memory
a kind of state dependent memory
108
showed that divers recalled words better when the recall condition matched the original learning environment, i.e. underwater or on land. Though it is unclear whether the findings can be generalized for medical education, medical educators regularly refer to them.
Baddeley scuba diving memory study
109
(Tulving & Thompson) principle that states that human memories are more easily retrieved if external conditions (emotional cues) at the time of retrieval are similar to those in existence at the time the memory was stored;
Ex: happy memories are more easy to access when happy
Encoding specificity
110
If participants forgot "38-dress" and "77-scissors" then participants relearned either same pairs or changed pairs.The better performance of participants in the same condition indicate that there was some memory left for "forgotten" items. Otherwise both groups would remember the same amount.
Nelson study of “lost” memories
111
old memories interfere with recall of newer information
Proactive interference
112
new memories interfere with recall of older information
Retroactive interference
113
requires conscious thought; such as recalling who came to dinner last night
Explicit memory
114
# Type of Explicit Memory
recall, recognition; memory of facts and events and refers to those memories that can be consciously recalled
Declarative memory
115
does not require conscious thought; Flows effortlessly in our actions. When a skilled typist is typing on a keyboard, she does not need to look at each key. Instead, she is able to type without recalling the placement of each key.
Implicit memory
116
# Type of Implicit Memory
skills; responsible for knowing how to do things, also known as motor skills. Stores information on how to perform certain procedures
Procedural memory
117
Inability to learn new explicit information after trauma
Patient H.M./Clive Wearing
Anterograde amnesia
118
inability to retrieve explicit information learned prior to trauma
Temporally-graded
Memory for old information typically intact
More recent information more vulnerable
Retrograde amnesia
119
Surgeons removed his hippocampus (in the medial temporal lobe) to stop seizures. could no longer learn new information
Patient H.M.
120
Originally a musician. got encephalitis. damaged hippocampus and nothing makes an impression, and he can only live in a moment to moment consciousness
Clive Wearing
121
Participants
Korsokoff's amnesia, and Patient N.A., versus normal subjects. Developed from a vitamin deficiency
Severe Anterograde Amnesia (Can't learn new things)
Methods
Experiment included 50% repeated words across 4 days
Non-repeated words: implicit
Repeated words: implicit + explicit
Results
For new words, Normals and Amnesics improved about the same (implicit only)
For old words, Normals were better than amnesiacs (implicit + explicit).
Mirror image reading study
122
in limbic system; critical for initial encoding; helps process explicit memories for storage
Hippocampus
123
when a memory becomes part of the long term memory and is thought of as stable
Memory consolidation
124
processes emotions and fears
Amygdala
125
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
Flashbulb memories
126
an implicit memory effect in which exposure to one stimulus influences the response to another stimulus
Priming
127
the creation of false memories when induced to imagine it (misinformation effect); can lead to imagination inflation
Memory construction
128
when misleading information has corrupted one's memory of an event
Misinformation effect (Loftus)
129
implanting plausible events which one is kinda sure happened
Implanting false memories
130
the loss of early memories
Childhood (infantile) amnesia
131
Basic building blocks of the brain.
Neuron
132
the cell’s life support center; dendrites extend from it
Cell body or soma
133
“listen”; the neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receives signals/messages and conduct impulses toward cell body
Dendrites
134
"speak/action," sends signals through its branches to other neurons/muscles/glands
Axon
135
a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables impulses hop from one node to next. “Insulation” Ex: if this degenerates multiple sclerosis occurs
Myelin sheath
136
a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon
Action potential (threshold, all or none response)
137
the space between neurons; the junction b/w the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. the tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or the synaptic cleft
Synapse
138
they interact with each other and their effects vary with the receptors they stimulate. a particular brain pathway may use only one or two neurotransmitters and they may affect specific behaviors and emotions
Neurotransmitters (don’t need to memorize all, just basic mechanism)
139
basic life functions; reticular formation, medulla, pons; function: regulation of cardiac and respiratory function, consciousness, and the sleep cycle
Brainstem
140
forms and stores implicit memories. located in back of brain
Cerebellum
141
limibic system is for
regulation
142
# limbic system
fear, anger, aggression; emotional processing
amygdala
143
# limbic system
memory formation
hippocampus
144
# limbic system
drive, motivation, sex; regulates glands, autonomic NS
Hypothalamus
145
# limbic system
sensory relay station
Thalamus
146
sophisticated sensory/motor processing, “higher” mental functions
Cerebral cortex
147
# Cerebral cortex
involved in sensory perception; space where body is
Parietal
148
# Cerebral cortex
direct motor control; reasoning, movement, some speech; damaged = personality problems, ability to problem solve
Frontal
149
# Cerebral cortex
involved in vision
Occipital
150
# Cerebral cortex
involved in speech, memory, auditory processing
Temporal lobes
151
part of the cerebral cortex where nerve impulses initiate voluntary muscular activity
Motor cortex
152
main sensory receptive area for touch
Somatosensory cortex
153
brain and spinal cord
central nervous system
154
neurons going into and out of the spinal cord
peripheral nervous system
155
controls organs and glands; runs by itself
Autonomic nervous system
156
# Autonomic nervous system
excite heart rate, slow digestion; gets us wired up (fight or flight)
Sympathetic systems
157
# Autonomic nervous system
slow heart rate, stimulate digestion; calms us down
Parasympathetic systems
158
Caused by right hemisphere damage (posterior parietal lobe)
Loss of “spatial awareness”
Typically stroke patients
Stroke in right hemisphere, the left side is ignored
Neglect syndrome (visuo-spatial neglect)
159
Sperry and Gazzaniga; corpus callosum connecting the two hemispheres of the brain is severed to surgically treat epilepsy (corpus callosum= aids motor coordination of left and right side)
Split brain studies: corpus callosum severed surgically to prevent seizures
160
Hemispheric specialization:
art/music, insight, left body, 3-D forms; facial recognition
Right
161
Hemispheric specialization:
language, numbers, reasoning, science, right body
left
162
pertaining to the other side; stroke involving the right side of the brain may cause contralateral paralysis of the left leg
Contralateral
163
pertaining to same side
Ipsilateral
164
Railroad construction foreman who had a 3 ½ foot long steel tamping rod through his head.
Causes:
distractibility/ concentration issues
problems with organization/planning
perseveration (failure to stop inappropriate behavior)
changes to "affect" (emotional expression and control
Frontal lobe syndrome: Phineas Gage
165
Senses must convert physical stimulus energy (eg chemical molecules) into electrical changes in nerve receptor cells
It's no use if you can’t transduce
Transduction
166
The minimum stimulation necessary to detect a particular light, sound, pressure, taste, or odor 50% of time
Absolute threshold, Page 215
167
the minimum difference a person can detect between any two stimuli 50% of the time
Just noticeable difference (difference thresholds) Page 216
168
system for perception of body movement
Kinesthetic system (touch)
169
a coiled, bony, fluid-filled, tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses
Cochlea
170
pitch=
frequency
171
is a tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency.
pitch
172
louder =
amplitude
173
perception of sound depends on where each component frequency produces vibrations along basilar membrane > 5,000hertz
Place Theory
174
wavelength/frequency determines pitch we experience < 5,000hertz
Frequency Theory
175
hair cells=
hearing, (cochlea)
176
fluid in ears =
vestibular
177
rods/cones=
vision
178
operate under low illumination and area chromatic – night time receptors
Allow us to see in dim light
Can not see fine spatial detail
Can not see different colors
Detect motion/peripheral vision
Rods
179
operate under high illumination. Chromatic. Packed around fovea– daytime receptors
Allow us to see in bright light
Allow us to see fine spatial detail
Cones
180
sensitive to light and triggers nerve impulses which are sent through the optic nerve to the brain to produce a vital image; no depth in the retina; distant stimulus - created by light bouncing off object
Retina
181
neuron located in the retina
Ganglion cells
182
neuron that transmits electrical impulses from the eyes to the brain
Optic nerve
183
the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot b/c no receptor cells are located there
Blindspot
184
the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster
Fovea
185
Each is sensitive to different wavelengths of light
Blue ( lower wavelength/frequency) green (medium) red (higher) cones
Trichromatic color vision theory (3 kinds cones)
186
Herring proposed that we have two types of color opponent cells
Red-green opponent cells
red+/green- excited signal red/inhibited signals green
red-/green+
Blue-yellow opponent cells
blue+/yellow-
blue-/yellow+
Our current view of color vision is that it is based on both the trichromatic and opponent process theory
Opponent process theory of color vision
187
Our perception of an object’s features remains constant even when our viewpoint (and the proximal stimulus) changes
Perception of size doesn’t change with distance
Perception of shape doesn’t change with viewing angle
Perception of darkness/color doesn’t change with light
Perceptual constancies (shape, size, etc)
188
fatigue of a sensory system from constant exposure to the same stimulus
Sensory adaptation
189
Urban dwellers more likely to see certain visual illusions; which line is longer?
Muller-lyer illusion
190
# Depth Perception
(the world) is 3D
Distal stimulus
191
# Depth Perception
(on retina) is 2D
Proximal stimulus:
192
# Depth Perception
perceptual experience is 3D
Percept
193
lack of correspondence
percept differs from distal stimulus
paradoxical correspondence (an illusion)
proximal stimulus does NOT correspond to distal stimulus but percept DOES
Lack of correspondence (eg perceptual constancies, 3D perception, etc)
194
Eleanor Gibson and Richard Walk to test depth perception
Glass surface, with checkerboard underneath at different heights
Visual illusion of a cliff
Baby can’t fall
Visual cliff
195
information available to one eye
Monocular depth cues
196
compare image received by both eyes
Binocular depth cues
197
linear perspective
linear persepctive photo
198
Introspection
blue color clock photo
199
Relative size:
a pictorial depth cue (the man sitting behind the man in front)
200
Convergence
Binocular cue (photo with orange arrows)
201
binocular cue for perceiving depth: by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance--the greater the disparity (difference) b/w the 2 images, the closer the object
Retinal disparity
202
Is depth perception innate
Yes. The ability to see objects in 3 dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two dimensional; allows us to judge distance
203
the capacity for or process of reacting to certain stimuli selectively when several occur simultaneously
Selective attention
204
A person can pay attention to only 2, or at the most, 3 things at one time.
Limited attention
205
we fail to perceive something when our attention is focused elsewhere
Inattentional blindness (eg dancing bear)
206
Two confederates carrying some larger object (a donor, a big painting) come between the subject and the experimenter
They switch the experimenter with someone else
Change blindness (eg flicker paradigm and person swap studies)
207
Used visual illusions like the Muller Lyer Illusion; top line seems longer in Ponzo Illusion
People were susceptible to the illusion even if they did NOT consciously process the stimuli that cause the illusion unexpected object involves the grouping of background dots in a display, the unreported grouping can affect judgments of line length in the Muller-Lyer illusion
Moore and Egeth study of visual illusions and inattentional blindness
208
The items that currently lie outside our conscious awareness, some may be made conscious, some may never get into conscious awareness
Much of it is easy to bring to awareness
The preconscious
209
feel like we know some information, but we can't recall it.
TOT states (tip of tongue)
210
another way in which stimuli we are not aware of can affect our behavior
Person cannot consciously see a certain portion of their visual field but still behave in some instances as if they can see it
Ex: The video where the guy is blind in both eyes but can see movement, like up or down, side to side
Blindsight
211
Requires conscious control
Effortful
One step at a time (serial)
Consumes our attentional resources
Performed more slowly
Novel tasks
Controlled Processing
212
Requires no conscious control
Little effort required
Subcomponents can be performed in parallel
Doesn’t consume much attentional resources
Performed quickly
Familiar, well-practiced tasks
Automatic processing
213
executes identical steps simultaneously.
Parallel processing
214
executes each step in an algorithm one after the other
Serial (sequential) processing
215
conflict or incongruent condition with automatic process vs controlled:
Interference effects between two tasks, one relatively automated and one that’s less automated
We have difficulty selectively attending to a less automated task that competes with a more automated task
Reading words vs naming colors
(yellow text with red color, blue text with yellow color)
Ex: read each word, first row, then next, and times you
First slide is all white (blue, yellow…)
Second slide is different colors that don’t correspond to word
Upside text with colors that don’t correspond to word have a time in between the all white words and second slide
Stroop task
216
Actively searching for a target in a field of distracters influence accuracy
Number of targets and distractors influence accuracy
Contrast feature search vs conjunctive search
Feature search: find presence of one feature in the array. Find the red letter in a field of blue letters
Conjunctive search: find the conjunction of 2 or more features together. Find a red z in a field of red and blue Zs and Ms
Can get illusory conjunctions under some conditions
Show red square and green circle
Subjects report seeing red circle
Visual search (Treisman’s theory)
217
Visual search (Treisman’s theory):find presence of one feature in the array. Find the red letter in a field of blue letters
Feature search
218
Visual search (Treisman’s theory):find the conjunction of 2 or more features together. Find a red z in a field of red and blue Zs and Ms
Conjunctive search
219
the subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment
All the sensations, perceptions, memories, and feelings you are aware of in any instant
Consciousness
220
24 hour biological clock – periodic fluctuations in physiological functioning
Body temperature
Blood pressure
Alertness – wake/sleep
Hormone level
Immune system
Circadian rhythms
221
SCN is part of hypothalamus and is involved in maintaining circadian rhythms
Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
222
Adaptive functions
Sleep may have played a protective role in human evolution by keeping people safe during potentially dangerous periods. Also save energy/calories
Restorative and cognitive functions
Restore immune system
Remove toxins – free radicals
Sleep also helps restore and repair damaged neurons
REM and NREM-2 sleep help strengthen neural connections that build enduring memories
Sleep promotes creative problem solving the next day
During deep sleep, the pituitary gland secretes a growth hormone necessary for muscle development
Theories of why we sleep
223
No one really knows
Biological and psychological explanations of behavior are partners, not competitors
Sigmund Freud – the interpretation of dreams (1900)
Wish fulfillment
Discharge otherwise unacceptable feelings
Theories of why we dream
224
Freudian theories of dreams:
manifest content: remembered story line
latent content: underlying meaning
225
Stages of sleep NREM stages 1,2,3/REM
Stage 1: NREM-1. Small, irregular waves produced in light sleep (people may or may not say they were asleep
Hypnic jerk: reflex muscle twitch throughout body that may occur in stage 1
Stage 2: NREM 2. Deeper sleep; sleep spindles (bursts of distinctive brain-wave activity) appear
Stage 3: NREM 3. Deeper sleep; delta waves appear; very large and slow. They we get deepest level of normal sleep; almost purely delta waves.
Used to be stages 3 and 4
Stage 4: rapid eye movements (REM): associated with dreaming; sleep is very light
Body is very still during REM
rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, b/c the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active
226
Rapid eye movement (REM) rebound is characterized by heightened frequency, greater depth, and increased intensity of REM sleep following episodes of sleep deprivation, significant stress, or the consumption or withdrawal of specific medications or recreational drugs.
REM rebound
227
larger, slower waves associated with relaxation and just before falling asleep
Alpha waves
228
very large and slow waves associated with a move to deeper sleep and a further loss of consciousness
Delta waves
229
# 1.
REM highest in infancy then drops
Changes in sleep with aging
230
Reading 12: Bandura et al.
"See Aggression...Do Aggression"
They found in testing that the children would imitate the violence they had observed. The importance of this study is it showed how dramatically children could obtain a behavior and led to research on the effect of violent games/movies on children
231
Reading 16: Loftus
"Thanks for the Memories"
conducted several experiments and gather that by asking questions that were guiding, and deceiving we could create memories in people, that they will genuinely start believing. The importance of this study is that it showed memories are not just recalled, but they can be made and manipulated
232
Reading 1: Gazzaniga
"One Brain or Two?"
1. Explore the extent to which the two halves of the brain can function independently; are there separate/unique abilities.
Can humans function normally w/o communication between halves.
2. Participants were epileptics with severed corpus callosum.
Given 3 tests:
Visual: Can see full stream of lights from right to left, but can only verbalize having seen lights processed by left side of brain.
Tactile: If an object is placed in right hand, can verbally describe what the object is. If object placed in left hand, can only point to object that resembles it, not verbalize
Visual/Tactile: right brain can comprehend language, but cannot verbalize like left brain.
3. Two halves of brain have specialized skill and functions. Left brain better at speaking, writing, math, reading (language center). Right brain better at facial recognition, problem solving, reasoning, and artistic capabilities.
4. Key implications are that communication between hemispheres, even in "normal" patients can lend insight into numerous psychological disorders, including multiple personality etc. Important research to dismiss notion of Left vs. Right brain capabilities and the nature of communication between hemispheres
233
Reading 4: Gibson and Walk
"Watch out for the Visual Cliff!"
1. Is depth perception inborn or learned: nature vs. nurture. When in early development are we able to perceive depth.
Gibson et al. developed the "visual cliff" to determine if avoiding the cliff was a natural response vs. those who thought avoiding the drop off was a learned behavior.
At what stage in development can a person or animal respond effectively to the stimuli of depth and height? Programmed at birth or develop as a result of experience and learning?
2. Visual cliff is a table with a thick clear glass cover. Under the cover is a solid surface with one half the same height as the glass, and the other floor level. Gives the appearance of a cliff with a center board that delineates the drop.
Participants were 36 infants 6-14 months old. Mothers involved. Each infant placed first at from deep side, then from shallow with mother calling them. (Also done with baby animals).
3. Most crawled from deep side to shallow side with no problem. However, when called from the cliff side, infants either crawled away from cliff or cried in frustration. The infants were perceiving depth. Kids, lambs, kittens, and chicks all perceived depth without error. Rats did not avoid cliff (depend more on smell for survival). Concluded depth perception part of evolutionary survival instinct.
4. Important discovery because it produced a systematic way to study depth perception (hard to ask infants if perceive depth). Suggest that depth perception is innate, but fear and avoiding danger learned behaviors.
