PSYCH 169 Midterm Flashcards
(244 cards)
1
Q
What was Mehr et al. 3 dimensions of song?
A
Formality, arousal, and religiosity
2
Q
Was music present in all of Mehr’s community that they sampled?
A
Yes
3
Q
Which part of this three-dimensional space do love songs fall in?
A
low on all dimensions
4
Q
In an experiment discussed by Mehr et al. people listened to songs from different cultures and where asked to decide which of four “behavioral contexts” it was associated with: dance, lullaby, healing, and love. If the song was from an unfamiliar culture, people could not classify them any better than simple chance guessing. TRUE OR FALSE
A
False
5
Q
What is the true about the universality of music?
A
Music is found in all societies
All cultures use music in more than one way (behavioral context)
6
Q
Darwin and Wallace’s theory of evolution tried to answer the primary question …
A
Where do the world’s species come from?
7
Q
Survival of the fittest doesn’t quite capture Darwin’s theory of evolution. What’s wrong with this summary of the theory?
A
Survival isn’t the point; it’s reproduction.
An organism that dies immediately after successfully reproducing, even at a young age, would be successful in evolutionary terms (assuming the organism’s death doesn’t immediately doom its offspring)
It’s really not about the survival fitness of the organism; it’s about the genes and whether they get into the next generation.
8
Q
TRUE OR FALSE: If every individual of a species has a given trait, and it does not vary from one individual to the next, that trait is, by definition, not heritable in the technical sense.
A
TRUE
9
Q
TRUE OR FALSE: Many behavioral traits have been found to be at least partially heritable
A
TRUE
10
Q
What is the primary drive of change in evolution?
A
Natural selection
11
Q
TRUE OR FALSE: Homologous traits refer to traits in two different species that were passed down from a common ancestor.
A
TRUE
12
Q
TRUE OR FALSE: If two traits serve the same function they are always homologous.
A
FALSE
13
Q
What is the music paradox?
A
Music is just sound pressure waves. It doesn’t provide nourishment or shelter but is held on a pedestal in the pantheon of pleasure.
14
Q
Is music universal?
A
yes, exists in every society both with and without words
14
Q
Musicality
A
a natural, spontaneously developing set of traits, which enables music
- Must have musicality to produce a variety of cultural music
-Basic ability to produce and have emotion to music
-Doesn’t change on short timescales
15
Q
What is language?
A
Language is the varied systems of words, their pronunciation, and the methods of combining them that human societies use and understand.
16
Q
Are there technologically primitive societies?
A
YES
17
Q
Are there primitive languages?
A
NO
18
Q
Can other human species learn human language?
A
NO
19
Q
What is Linguisticality
A
the spontaneously developing set of traits that enables the acquisition and use of language
20
Q
What are the 3 things that explain the nature of Grammar?
A
Hierarchial(not linear)
Productive: finite rules can generate an infinite set of sentences.
Recursive: embedding multiple sentences in one sentence
21
Q
Descriptive grammar
A
unconsciously learned rules for how we actually talk (Real world)
22
Q
Prescriptive grammar
A
explicitly taught cultural rules for how we ought to talk, learned in school
23
Q
what are the 5 cored ideas of evolution?
A
(1) Populations change over time (evolve)
(2) Evolution is gradual
- Typically on timescales of hundreds to thousands to millions of years
(3) Populations diverge into different species (speciation)
(4) All species share a common ancestry
(5) NATURAL SELECTION IS THE MAJOR DRIVER OF CHANGE AT A GENETIC LEVEL
24
what are the other sources of evolution?
Genetic drift
Spandrels
25
Homology
Shared ancestry
26
Example of homology
four limbs of tetrapods --> all birds, bats, mice, and crocodiles all have four limbs
Mammalian forelimb
27
Analogy
shared function with different evolutionary origin
28
Example of Analogy
-vocal learning in some apes (humans), birds, sea mammals, elephants, bats
- bats vs. birds wings
29
Deep homology
a conserved developmental genetic algorithm or module can be copied and repurposed
30
Example of deep homology
jellyfish and human eyes use the same genetic module to build them
31
Why are some things disgusting?
built into our immune system to avoid hazards
32
Why are we not sexually attracted to our siblings?
we need genetic diversity and that is more successful with different people
33
Why are we afraid of snakes but not driving?
to recent to develop a biologically fear for driving
34
What is heritability?
how much variation in a trait is explained by genetic variation
35
What is genetic variation?
a difference of something we all have like hair color, amount of fingers
diversity of genetic material within a population
36
What study is used to estimate heritability?
Twin adoption studies
37
How much DNA do identical twins share?
100% (monozygotic)
-came from one fertalized egg that split into two
38
How much DNA do Fraternal twins share?
50% (Dizygotic)
39
Is heritability the same thing as "under genetic control"?
NO
40
Is having five fingers heritable?
No, because there is essentially no variation in this trait
41
Is having 5 fingers under genetic control?
Yes
42
How do genes evolve?
they evolve to enable adaptive phenotypes in the context of their particular environment
ex: there is no reason to hard wire the brain to instinctively speak a particular language if you can just wire in the capacity to learn with the guarantee that the environment will provide a linguistic environment from which to learn
43
Why don't we have the ability to synthesize our own Vitamin C?
our ancestors got vitamin c from the environment (fruit), no reason to keep the ability to synthesize (no need to waste energy)
44
What is the faculty of language?
all humans are born with the ability to acquire language aka universal grammar
45
Broad sense (FLB)
all of the mental capacities needed for the acquisition and use of language, including those that are not specific to language and may be shared by other species
46
Narrow sense (FLN)
only those capacities that are both unique to our species and specific to language (possibly syntax and recusion)
47
Examples of FLB
memory
speech perception
sequencing
vocal control
theory of mind
48
Phonology
study of the sound structure of language, a generative system of rules for combining discrete units (phonemes) into syllables, words, and phrases
49
what does prosody refer to?
melody
rhythm
stress patterns
50
Morphemes
smallest unit of meaning
(1) Free morphemes
(2) Bound morphemes (-ed, -ing)
51
Morpheme operations
Derivational: change in form and category (verb --> noun)
Inflectional: form is the same (tense walk --> walked)
Compounding (computer-lover)
52
syntax
study of phrase and sentence formation
53
Productive (property of syntax)
if you know the rules and the words you can produce and understand sentences you've never said or hear
54
Recursive (property of syntax)
rules can contain instances of itself
55
what are the two types of syntax?
autnomous & lexicalized
56
autonomous syntax
rules are completely separable from words and meanings
ex: NP --> Det (adj) N
57
Lexicalized syntax
structures are part of the world or morpheme lexicon
58
Semantics
study of meaning
59
are words the same as meanings
NO
60
Fast mapping
the ability to acquire a word rapidly on the basis of minimal information.
61
Combinatorial meaning
meaning of a sentence is the combo of the meaning of the words and their structural (syntactic) relation
62
Propositional meaning
the meaning of a sentence can be evaluated with respect to its truth value (can be judged)
63
Do other communicative systems like music and gesture have the property of truth value?
NO
64
Pragmatics
The study of language use in context
65
context-driven inference
the ability to use context to infer intended meaning for an ambiguous signal (present in other animals)
66
theory of mind
-not unique to humans
the ability to conceptualize what others know (developed by age 4)
67
what is unique to Human pragmatic interpretation?
drive to share thoughts cooperatively
68
Pitch
a prominent building block of music
-how our brain perceives that frequency of a wave
can be used all by itself to form simple, but pleasing melodies that loudness or timbre cannot
69
Higher frequency entails what type of pitch?
higher pitch
70
what are the two effects of pitch and frequency?
missing fundamental & octave equivalence
71
The missing fundamental
when the f0 or lowest pitch is gone but can be heard when there is apparent source or component of the frequency
-this perception is due to the brain interpreting patterns that are present
72
Spectrogram graph
x-axis: time
y-axis: frequency
73
Frequency spectrum
lists the frequency bands and ranges in the sound spectrum
74
Harmonics
Overtones or lower frequencies
a wave or signal whose frequency is an integral (whole number) multiple of the frequency of the same reference signal or wave.
75
what is the pitch between 540, 640, and 740 hz?
100
76
Is the missing fundamental actually missing?
No, our brain fills up the info that is missing
77
Ex of an Octave
an interval between two tones with a ratio 2:1 where the higher tone is double the frequency of the lower
78
Why do octave notes sound the same?
sounds the same due to the harmonics
79
How do harmonics work?
-they are multiples on the fundamental
-notes an octave apart have harmonics that align
- but higher tones have more sparse harmonics
80
Octave
a special pitch interval where the harmonics maximally line up
81
What are the two dimensions of pitch perception?
height & chroma
82
Height
as frequency increases the tone gets higher
ex: increase in frequency = increase in pitch
83
Chroma
at every doubling of frequency the tone appears to return to an equivalent "note"
84
What is transposition ability?
ability to easily recognize a tune, even though the original pitches were not there
ex: knowing what song is playing though the pitch was x2 higher
84
Is octave equivalence universal ?
INFANTS are sensitive to it and don't have much musical experience
-they are more surprised by the shifts that are not octave based
-suggests its something we don't have to learn through experience
- people with no exposure to western music also show octave equivalence
84
Do all species hear octave-spaecd tones as equivalent?
NO
84
What does consonant mean?
how pleasing a sound is, harmonious
84
what does dissonant mean?
not a pleasing sound, disharmonious
84
What is timbre
aka tone/tone color
the perceptual correlate of harmonic structure
adds color and texture
important in recognizing sound identity (not pitch)
84
is timbre a foundational building block of music?
NO
84
Loudness
amplitude of the sound pressure of the wave
-correlated with intensity or arousal level of emotion and can define rhythms
84
TRUE OR FALSE : Humans and monkeys both have zero lag when predicting the timing of a song
FALSE only humans have a zero lag
85
TRUE OR FALSE: Very few can synchronize to a beat or extract a beat from a complex rhythm
TRUE
ex: humans moving our body to the beat of a song
86
Melody
when other musical elements come together particularly pitch & rhythm
87
How does bat song compare to bird song?
at least in some species they have equal complexity
88
Which of the following is not dependent on vocal production learning?
calls
89
in what way are animal songs in the technical sense similar to language?
-they are complex
-they exhibit cultural variation
-they are hierarchial
90
Human may well have inherited ___ from our last common ancestor with other living apes because living apes also exhibit it.
language
91
Studying bird song can help us understand human vocalization because these two traits are..
analogous
92
If an animal test subject is performing a rhythm task and is consistently lagging just behind the beat, this indicates
that they are reacting rather than anticipating the beat
93
Chimpanzees occasionally display which kind of musicality?
buttress drumming
94
Why do song birds sing?
territory marking and mate attraction
- males are singers suggesting sexual selection for mate attraction
95
what animals drum?
apes (including humans)
woodpeckers
desert rodents
palm cokatoos
96
Is vocal communication common in what form?
calls which are innate
97
is vocal learning common among species?
no
98
how is song more complex than vocal learning?
hierarchically structured using notes to form repeating patterns (motifs)
learned from a tutor typically a parent
shows cultural variation
99
True or false: humans are the only primate with strong vocal production learning ability
True
100
What theory might explain chimpanzee displays of musicality?
competitive displays
101
how would you describe the difference in performance between humans and monkeys in keeping a beat?
humans can keep a beat almost perfectly with no delay
102
Speech production is enabled by the structure of the vocal tract plus the neural circuitry that enables vocal production learning. Which of Tinbergen's levels of explanation does this claim belong to?
mechanistic
103
human speech and birdsong are ___ traits.
analogous
104
the source filter model of speech production holds that speech sounds are generated by the ____ that is then filtered by the _____.
larynx, supra laryngeal vocal tract
105
Different vocal tract configurations, including tongue position and lip rounding, primarily affect:
a. formant frequency patterns
b. which vowel is produced
c. how the harmonics of the fundamental frequency are filtered
106
true/false: both language and music are universal, hierarchical, and propositional
false
107
the supra laryngeal vocal tract acts like
an acoustic filter
108
The primary acoustic features that differentiate one vowel sound from another include:
F0
109
The pitch differences in voices between human males and females ..
is an example of sexual dimorphism
develops at puberty
110
the human infant's vocal tract is more similar to a ___ than the ___ vocal tract.
monkey, adult human
111
what feature allows humans to make particularly acoustically distinctive vowels but also increases the risk of choking?
descended larynx
112
which of the following is true regarding our descended larynx?
-it improves our ability to articulate some speech sounds
-its speech-related function may not have been the original driving force for its evolution
113
Did theorizing about the origins of language start with Darwin?
FALSE
114
which of the following was proposed as a theory of the origin of language?
language started as imitations of natural sounds
... emotional vocalizations
... social communication & coordination
... as a song
... as gesture
115
what did Darwin propose regarding the protolanguage state of language evolution?
song
116
Darwin thought that the protolanguage form was shaped by which evolutionary mechanism?
sexual selection
117
which of the following is true regarding lexical protolanguage?
a.It assumes the existence of a vocabulary of words but basically without morphosyntax.
b. Pidgin languages are believed to reflect a basic lexical protolanguage ability.
c. Kids seem to pass through a lexical protolanguage stage during language acquisition.
d. Chimps and gorillas seem to have at least a rudimentary lexical protolanguage.
118
our limitation of the lexical protolanguage theory is that
it doesn't explain how we came to be vocal learners and how we got to the point of being able to learn a lexicon of words
119
true or false: creole languages contain morphosyntactic structure
true
120
what are the properties of song as proposed by the song protolanguage hypothesis?
-hierarchial and productive
-similar to bird or whale song
-likely used for mating and territory defense
-required the evolution of vocal learning
121
which of the following is evidence for the song protolanguage hypothesis?
-universality of music
-similarity between music and phonology
- song has evolved in multiple species which makes it evolutionarily feasible to have evolved in our ancestors
122
what is the strongest pieces of evidence against gestural protolanguage?
the existence of fully structured signed languages
123
true/false: signed languages are grammatically structured and can communicate anything that a spoken language can.
true
124
the main problem facing gestural protolanguage theory is that
signed language is basically equivalent to a lexical protolanguage
125
what evolutionary problem does kin selection solve?
altruism
126
what is kin selection?
the idea that by helping one's non-offspring relatives, an organism can get its genes into the next generation
127
which of the following is true regarding Hamilton's rule?
-it considers the fitness cost to the giver
-considers the fitness benefit to the receiver
- considers the genetic relatedness of the giver and receiver
128
true/false: humans are often helpful to non-relatives. there is no evolutionary explanation for this.
false
129
what 3 features does language have that music doesn't?
- propositionality
-compositionality: meaning of a sentence, structure, depends on structure and word order
-recursion
130
what 3 features does music have that language doesn't?
- discrete pitches
- isochronous rhythm (has a beat)
-repeatable (mostly)
131
what does the larynx produce?
the fundamental frequency/pitch
132
larynx
sound source that controls pitch, the flap in the throat
133
Chimpanzee vocal tract characteristics
- larynx is high
-larynx only goes up or down for chimps
134
are nonhuman apes vocal learners?
no
135
Apes signing ability
- know hundreds of basic signs
-no control of larynx
- cannot achieve anything close to human level ability (syntax)
-not in control of their voluntary respiratory system to produce speech
- most communication is to ask for food or play
- can use word order
136
true or false: vertebrates have the ability to learn a number of arbitrary signs and combine them in simple phrases
true
137
is communicating emotions learned?
no
138
what animal has different calls to signal different types of predators?
lemurs
139
3 types of vocalization
1. calls: innate, common trait (barks, laughs, moos)
2. vocal production learning: learned calls, innate ability to learn, rare
3. song
140
song characteristics
- learned & complex
- structured
- shows cultural variation
-rare
141
who are the vocal learners?
- song birds
- parrots
-hummingbirds
-cetaceans (dolphins, orca whales, baleen whales)
-pinnipeds (seal, walrus)
- bats
-elephants
- primates humans
142
why do birds sing?
territory marking & mate attraction
- females: social group bonding
143
what organ do birds sing with?
syrinx, song birds have a two part syrinx
- birds have a larynx but don't use it
144
palm cockatoo drums true or false?
true
145
what form of vocal communication most common?
calls which are innate
146
how is song a complex form of vocal learning?
- hiearachially structured using notes to form repeating patterns
- learned from a tutor (parent)
-shows cultural variation
147
Descended Larynx Theory
humans evolved a vocal tract that is optimized for producing speech sounds
148
do other mammals have a problem with choking?
no, their epilgottis can seal off the oral cavity from the glottis and trachea
149
infants larynx key difference
- larynx hasn't lowered yet
the lower the larynx the higher chance of choking
150
why did evolution put us at risk for choking?
anatomy must have an adaptive advantage that overrides the disadvantage of choking, allows us to make more speech sounds
- humans have two vocal tracts compared to other primates
151
can non-human primates produce backness in vowels?
no
152
can the vocal tract anatomy alone be the limiting factor for the evolution of speech?
NO
153
speech was the driving force for the evolved vocal tract true or false?
false due to genetic drift
154
what does longer vocal tracts mean?
lower voice pitch (F0)
155
lower voice pitch is a cue to...
animal size
156
is the descended larynx uniquely human
no
157
voice pitch
sexually dimorphic trait in humans
158
how do mammals achieve a two tube system like humans?
lower their larynx during vocalization, making a lower freq and a louder call
159
what suggests that the larynx might have lowered to give a size signal?
sexual dimorphism (difference in men and woman vocal tracts)
160
exaptation
adapting something that evolved for one purpose to another purpose
161
is vocal tract anatomy enough to explain the evolution of speech and language?
NO
162
cons of biblical theory
not a scientific theory, you can't test it
163
onomatopeia theory
words started as imitations of animal sounds aka protolanguage/intermediate-stage theory
164
emotional expression theory
- words started as emotional vocalizations
CONS: exsists in animals in the form of calls
165
social communication theory
words started as social communication & coordination
166
song-based theory
thought that song was the first language that came first, and people communicated by tones
167
gesture based theory
evolved from natural language of action like cries, facial expressions, gestures to an institutional language of action
168
Max muller
discredited darwinian evolutionary theories
169
Darwin's theory of language evolution
protolanguage=sond
- functioned like birdsong to communicate emotion, attract mates, and defend territory
-shaped by sexual selection
- HE THOUGHT INTELLIGENCE SHAPED LANGUAGE
170
is linguisticality a cultural invention or a biological tract?
biological trait
- complex trait unliekly to emerge from a single event
-must have an intermediate proto form or forms od linguisticality
171
what are the 3 protolinguisticality theories?
- lexical
-gestural
- musical
172
lexical protolinguisticality theory
- ability for vocal learning
language without morphosyntax: is the study of how languages change over time, including the development of new words, grammatical structures, and phonetic changes.
173
gestural protolinguisticality theory
174
musical protolinguisticality theory
175
pidgin languages
- hacked communication systems invented and used by adults who don't speak the same language (proto-lang)
176
creole language
- natural structured language
- what children of a pidgin lang. community end up speaking
- has grammatical structure
177
agrammatic aphasia
lack of grammatical structure, can produce language but it doesn't make sense (impairs morphosyntax)
178
aphasia
an acquired disorder of language caused by brain damage
179
parsing
sentence processing, process of dividing a sentenc into grammatical elements
180
lexical protolanguage
a stage where groups of humans are willfully sharing meaningful propositional information
181
how are genes selfish?
successful genes are the ones that get themselves replicated in the next generation
182
kin selection
-evolution acts on genes, organisms are the vessesl for gene replication
- organisms can pass down their genes by reproducing itself (50% genes passed down) or helping relatives who share genes
183
4 types of gestural protolanguage
1. deictic: meaning is dependent on context
2. iconic: meaning communicated directly by form
3. emblematic: meaning comes from culturally determined conventions
4. beats: accentuates the rhythm of speech
184
what is the main problem of gestural theory?
gestures don't identify what caused the shift to the universal default vocal system
-sign language is the strongest argument against gestural protolanguage
185
difference between signed language and gestures?
- has a true phonology, morphology, syntax, and systematic mapping like spoken language
186
pros of spoken language
- can communicate in the dark
- frees the hands
- visual attention can be elsewhere
187
cons of spoken language
- makes noise that attracts predators
-risk of choking with descended larynx
- fire would have made nighttime communication via sign possible
-deaf people have no trouble signing and driving, cooking, caring for kids
188
what traits are needed for language?
-vocal learning
-productive generation of vocalized forms
-hierarchical structuring
189
why do we develop song early?
song interaction is two way between parent and infant
190
does song protolanguage require a shift from one gestural system to a vocal system?
no
191
why is social bonding adaptive?
bonding among group members ensures the benefits outweigh the costs, lower the chance of freeloading
192
what is a common bonding mechanism among non-human primates?
grooming between two individuals
193
holistic to analytic hypothesis
meaningless bits of sung phrases become associated with meaning
holistic chunks are analyzed into parts that can be recombined
194
the null hypothesis
musicality has no adaptive value in itself, it came along for free with other adaptations
195
Tecumseh Fitch's thoughts
-music is universal
- music is entrenched in daily life
-music is loud and energetically expensive
196
discretization
breaking pitch continua into discrete units or notes
197
is group synchronization unique to humans?
no crickets and fireflies do it could be used for mate attraction
198
benefits of synchronization for humans
- group singing decreases stress hormones
- prosocial behavior
199
use of fMRI
identifies what regions are activated for language and music
200
neuropsychology
studying the effects of brain disruption on behavioral abilities
disruption: stroke, neurodegenerative disease
201
can singing be preserved in patients with aphasia?
yes
202
amusia
trouble with pitch, affecting melody recognition, pitch discrimination, production, rhythm
203
congenital amusia
aka tone deafness
affects 4% of the population
204
people with congenital amusia have difficulty with ...
- detecting when someone sings out of tune
-recognizing a familiar tune without the aid of lyrics
-holding tunes in memory
205
true or false: people with congenital amusia tend to be insensitive to pitch-related dissonance
true
206
true or false: people with amusia might perform worse singing a familiar song if they omit the lyrics and just hum it
true
207
congenital amusia is a
heritable disorder that runs in families
208
what is one theory regarding what's different about the brain of people with congenital amusia?
top down recurrent processing from frontal cortex to auditory cortex is disrupted
209
are genes a strong influencing factor in the emergence of music prodigies?
yes
210
where are primary language areas in the brain located?
left hemisphere,
broca's area adjacent to motor cortex, incorporates programs for coordination of these muscles in speech
211
what is the dorsal premotor speech are in control of?
voice pitch during speaking & singing
voluntary control of our larynx
codes pitch related acoustic features when listening
212
New theory from Broca's area
2 zones near Brocas
1. dorsal, larynx source
2. anterior filter supra tract
213
do monkeys have voluntary control of their larynx?
no
214
FEF
frontl eye field , 55b is sandwiched between human eye fields
215
rhythm is specific to which two ..
humans and parrots
216
BPS
beat perception and synchronization
217
what evidence is that musicality is not a spandrel?
linguisticality and musicality can doubly dissociate
218
childhood apraxia
impairment in spoken and written language
-mutation disrupting FOXP2 gene changes from G --> A
219
FOXP2 GENE function
regulatory gene - downstream targets and interactors are entry points into neural pathways
heterozygous mutation in FOXP2 cause a rare severe speech and language disorder
220
what problems did the KE family have?
-problems with rhythm and timing NOT pitch and melody
221
what other species has the same FOXP2 variant as us?
neanderthals
222
true or false: rhythm ability may be a stronger correlate with language than melody?
true
223
difficulties people with congenital amusia have are
can't sing in tune/retrieve tune
fail to detect pitch deviants
bad top down processing
poor feedback control between right inferior frontal gyrus and auditory cortex
224
hominid
family that includes the great apes
pongo ( orangutans)
gorillas
Pan (chimpanzee and bonobo
homo (us)
225
hominin
family that includes us and our extinct relatives after the split with pan
226
bipedal
helpful for hunting or cooling and carrying
227
loss of hair gives way too..
helpful for cooling and hunting
228
tool making
advanced forms suggests imitation learning
229
control of fire or cooking gave way to
more efficient digestion and therefore brain growth
230
australopithecus
the singing hominin
-first evolved song, song came first
231
homo habilis
gestural imitative learning where tools appear
232
homo erectus
very successful species
- used fire and high tech tools
-gesture and song sequences, rituals
233
heidelbergensis or antecessor
lexical protolanguage
propositional communication
built shelters
possible loss common ancestors of homo sapiens and homo neandertalenis
234
neanderthalensis
coexisted and interbred with us
235
