Psych Chapter 2 Flashcards
(148 cards)
1
Q
Biological Psychology
A
The scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes.
2
Q
Neurons
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Nerve cells; the basic building block of the nervous system.
3
Q
Dendrite’s
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A neuron’s often bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body.
4
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Axon
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The neuron extension that passes messages away from the cell body to its terminal branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands.
5
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Myelin Sheath
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A fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node (gaps between the myelin sheath) to the next.
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Nodes
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Gaps between the myelin sheath.
7
Q
Multiple Sclerosis
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Degeneration of myelin sheath, resulting in slowing of communication to muscles, with eventual loss of muscle control.
8
Q
Glial Cells (Glia)
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Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory.
9
Q
Action Potential
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A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.
10
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Ions
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Electrically charged atoms.
11
Q
The fluid outside of an axon’s membrane has mostly…
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…positively charged sodium ions.
12
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A resting axon’s fluid interior consists of…
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…both large, negatively charged protein ions and smaller, positively charged potassium ions and has a mostly negative charge.
13
Q
The axon’s surface is selective about what it allows through its “doors,” this is called…
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…selectively permeable.
14
Q
Resting Potential
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Positive-outside/negative-inside state
15
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Depolarization
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The axon opens its gates and the positively charged sodium ions flood the axon, resulting in a loss of inside/outside charge difference (causing the next section of axon channels to open and then the next like falling dominos).
16
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Excitatory Neural Signal
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Pushing a neuron’s accelerator
17
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Inhibitory Neural Signal
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Pushing a neuron’s brake
18
Q
Threshold
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The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse (about -55 mV).
19
Q
What combined signals trigger an action potential?
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Excitatory signals exceed the inhibitory signals by a minimum intensity (threshold).
20
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Refractory Period
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A brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state.
21
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All-or-None-Response
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A neuron’s reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing. (Increasing the level of stimulation above the threshold will not increase the neural impulse’s intensity.)
22
Q
How do we detect the intensity of a stimulus? How do we distinguish a gentle touch from a big hug?
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A strong stimulus can trigger more neurons to fire and to fire more often, but it does not affect the action potential’s strength or speed.
23
Q
List the order in which an action potential travels through a neuron’s parts.
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Dendrites, cell body, axon.
24
Q
Terminal branches of axons form…
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…junctions with other cells.
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Junction
A point where two or more things are joined.
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Synapse
The junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron.
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Synaptic Gap (Cleft)
The tiny gap between two neurons (at the junction b/w axon tip and dendrite/cell body).
Tiny gap at the synapse.
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Neurotransmitters
Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neutron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate an action potential.
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Reuptake
A neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron.
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What happens in the synaptic gap?
Neurons send neurotransmitters from their terminal branches of axon across the synapse to the receiving neurons' dendrites or cell body where they attach to receptor sites.
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What is reuptake? What two other things can happen to excess neurotransmitters after a neuron reacts?
Reuptake occurs when excess neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the sending neuron. Excess neurotransmitters can also drift away or be broken down by enzymes.
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Acetylcholine (Ach)
A neurotransmitter involved with learning and memory. It is the messenger at every junction between motor neurons and skeletal muscles (carries information from the brain and spinal cord to the body's tissues).
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Endorphins
"morphine within" - natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.
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Dopamine
"Feel-good hormone" (pleasure, satisfaction, motivation) - influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion.
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Serotonin
Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal - happiness, sleep and waking cycle, sexual desire, etc.
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Norepinephrine
Helps control alertness, arousal, and attention.
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GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)
A major inhibitory neurotransmitter.
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Glutamate
A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory.
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Agonist
A molecule that increases a neurotransmitter's action.
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Antagonist
A molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter's action.
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Central Nervous System (CNS)
The brain and spinal cord, the body's decision maker.
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Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
The sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body.
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Nerves
Bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) with muscles, glands, and sense organs.
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Sensory (Afferent) Neurons
Carry messages from the body's tissues and sensory receptors inward to the brain and spinal cord for processing.
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Motor (Efferent) Neurons
Carry instructions from the CNS out to the body's muscles and glands.
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Interneurons
Neurons within the brain and spinal cord; communicate internally and process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.
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Somatic Nervous System
The division of the PNS that controls the body's skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system.
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Autonomic Nervous System
The part of the PNS that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.
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Sympathetic Nervous System
The division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy.
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Parasympathetic Nervous System
The division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy.
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Homeostasis
Steady internal state
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Reflex
A simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response.
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Endocrine System
The body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.
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Hormones
Chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues.
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Adrenal Glands
A pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress.
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Pituitary Gland
The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.
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Why is the pituitary gland called the "master gland"?
Responding to signals from the hypothalamus, the pituitary releases hormones that trigger other endocrine glands to secrete hormones, which in turn influence brain and behavior.
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How are the nervous and endocrine systems alike, and how do they differ?
Both of these communication systems produce chemical molecules that act on the body's receptors to influence our behavior and emotions. The endocrine system, which secretes hormones into the bloodstream, delivers its messages much more slowly than the speedy nervous system, and the effects of the endocrine system's messages tend to linger much longer than those of the nervous system.
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The neuron fiber that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles and glands is the _______.
axon
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The tiny space between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite or cell body of another is called the _______.
synaptic gap
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Regarding a neuron's response to stimulation, the intensity of the stimulus determines _______.
whether or not an impulse is generated
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In a sending neuron, when an action potential reaches an axon terminal, the impulse triggers the release of chemical messengers called _______.
neurotransmitters
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Endorphins are released in the brain in response to _______.
pain or vigorous exercise
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The autonomic nervous system controls internal functions, such as heart rate and glandular activity. The word autonomic means _______.
self-regulating
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The sympathetic nervous system arouses us for action and the parasympathetic nervous system calms us down. Together, the two systems make up the _______.
autonomic nervous system
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The neurons of the spinal cord are part of the _______ nervous system.
central
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The most influential endocrine gland, known as the master gland, is the _______.
pituitary
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The _______ _______ secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine, helping to arouse the body in times of stress.
adrenal glands
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Lesion
Tissue destruction; a brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue.
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Electroencephalogram (EEG)
An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.
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PET (Positron Emission Tomography) Scan
A visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs given task
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MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)
Technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy.
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fMRI (Functional MRI)
A technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function as well as structure.
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Brainstem
The oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions.
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Medulla
The base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing.
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Pons
Sits above the medulla; helps coordinate movements and control sleep.
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Thalamus
The brain's sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.
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Reticular Formation
A nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal.
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Cerebellum
The "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory.
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In what brain region would damage be most likely to (1) disrupt your ability to skip rope? (2) disrupt your ability to hear and taste? (3) perhaps leave you in a coma? (4) cut off the very breath and heartbeat of life?
(1) cerebellum
(2) thalamus
(3) reticular formation
(4) medulla
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Limbic System
Neural system (including the amygdala, hypothalamus, and hippocampus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives.
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Amygdala
Two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion (fear and anger).
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Hypothalamus
A neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature) (homeostasis), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.
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Hippocampus
A neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage.
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The part of the brainstem that controls heartbeat and breathing is the
medulla
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The thalamus functions as a
sensory control center
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The lower brain structure that governs arousal is the
reticular formation
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The part of the brain that coordinates voluntary movement and enables nonverbal learning and memory is the
cerebellum
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Parts of the limbic system are
amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus
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A cat's ferocious response to electrical brain stimulation would lead you to suppose the electrode had touched the
amygdala
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The neural structure that most directly regulates eating, drinking, and body temperature is the
hypothalamus
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The initial reward center discovered by Olds and Milner was located in the
hypothalamus
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Cerebral Cortex
The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.
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Which area of the brain is most similar to that of less complex animals?
The brainstem
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Which part of the human brain distinguishes us most from less complex animals?
The cerebral cortex
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Frontal Lobes
Portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgement.
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Parietal Lobes
Portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position.
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Occipital Lobes
Portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields.
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Temporal Lobes
Portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear.
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Motor Cortex
An area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.
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Somatosensory Cortex
Area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.
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Our brain's __________ cortex registers and processes body touch and movement sensations. The __________ cortex controls our voluntary movements.
somatosensory, motor
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Association Areas
Areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking.
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Why are association areas important?
Association areas are involved in higher mental functions - interpreting, integrating, and acting on information processed in other areas.
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Plasticity
The brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience.
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Neurogenesis
The formation of new neurons.
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Corpus Callosum
The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.
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Split Brain
A condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them.
109
Right visual field leads to the _________ hemisphere, which is the _________ area.
Left, verbal
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(1) If we flash a red light to the right hemisphere of a person with a split brain, and flash a green light to the left hemisphere, will each observe its own color? (2) Will the person be aware that the colors differ? (3) What will the person verbally report seeing?
(1) yes
(2) no
(3) green
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What are the functions of the various cerebral cortex regions?
The cerebral cortex has two hemispheres and each hemisphere has four lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital.
The motor cortex controls voluntary movement.
The somatosensory cortex registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.
Most of the brain's cortex is devoted to association areas - involved with learning, remembering, thinking, and other high-level functions.
112
To what extent can a damaged brain reorganize itself, and what is neurogenesis?
If one hemisphere is damaged early in life, the other will pick up many of its functions by reorganizing or building new pathways. This plasticity diminishes later in life. The brain sometimes mends itself by forming new neurons, a process known as neurogenesis.
113
What do split brains reveal about the functions of our two brain hemispheres?
Split-brain research has confirmed that in most people, the left hemisphere is the more verbal, and that the right hemisphere excels in visual perception and the recognition of emotion.
114
If a neurosurgeon stimulated your right motor cortex, you would most likely
move your left leg.
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How do different neural networks communicate with one another to let you respond when a friend greets you at a party?
The visual cortex is a neural network of sensory neurons connected via interneurons to other neural networks, including auditory networks. This allows you to integrate visual and auditory information to respond when a friend you recognize greets you at a party.
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Judging and planning are enabled by the ________ lobes.
frontal
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What would it be like to talk on the phone if you didn't have temporal lobe association areas? What would you hear? What would you understand?
You would hear sounds, but without the temporal lobe association areas you would be unable to make sense of what you were hearing.
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The "uncommitted" areas that make up about three-fourths of the cerebral cortex are called ________ ________.
association areas
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Plasticity is especially evident in the brains of ________.
young children
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An experimenter flashes the word HERON across the visual field of a man with split-brain. HER is transmitted to his right hemisphere and ON to his left hemisphere. When asked to indicate what he saw, the man says he saw ________ but points to ________.
on, her
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The left hemisphere excels in
processing language
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Damage to the brain's right hemisphere is most likely to reduce a person's ability to
make inferences
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Environment
Every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us.
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Heredity
The genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring.
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Behavior Genetics
The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.
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Chromosomes
Threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes.
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DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes.
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Genes
The biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins.
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Genome
The complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes.
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Put the following cell structures in order from smallest to largest: nucleus, gene, chromosome.
1. gene
2. chromosome
3. nucleus
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When the mother's egg and the father's sperm unite, each contributes ___ ________.
23 chromosomes
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Identical (monozygotic) twins
Develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms.
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Fraternal (dizygotic) twins
Develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than ordinary brothers and sisters, but they share a prenatal environment.
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Interaction
The interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity).
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How do researchers use twin and adoption studies to learn about psychological principles?
Researchers use twin and adoption studies to understand how much variation among individuals is due to genetic makeup and how to environmental factors. Some studies compare the traits and behaviors of identical twins (same genes) and fraternal twins (different genes, as in any two siblings). They also compare adoption children with their adoptive and biological parents. Some studies compare traits and behaviors of twins raised together or separately.
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Epigenetics
The study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change.
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Evolutionary Psychology
The study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.
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Natural Selection
(Charles Darwin)
The principle that those chance inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.
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Mutation
A random error in gene replication that leads to a change.
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The threadlike structures made largely of DNA molecules are called _______.
chromosomes
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A small segment of DNA that codes for particular proteins is referred to as a _______.
gene
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When the mother's egg and the father's sperm unite, each contributes _______.
23 chromosomes
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Fraternal twins result when
two eggs are fertilized by two sperm
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What kind of twins share the same DNA?
identical twins (monozygotic)
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Adoption studies seek to understand genetic influences on personality. They do this mainly by
evaluating whether adopted children's personalities more closely resemble those of their adoptive parents or their biological parents.
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Epigenetics is the study of the molecular mechanisms by which ________ trigger or block genetic expression.
environments
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Behavior geneticists are most interested in exploring ________ (commonalities/differences) in our behaviors.
differences
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Evolutionary psychologists are most interested in exploring ________ (commonalities/differences).
commonalities
