Psych Exam

Question 1

Park and Rothbart (1982) AIM

Answer 1

Investigate if people would show in-group bias and create broad generalizations about people in an out-group

Question 2

Park and Rothbart (1982) PROCEDURE

Answer 2

Research was conducted on 3 sororities at the University of Oregon that was similar in proximity and values. 90 participants total (30 from each) answered a questionnaire in which they had to rank their sorority and another sorority on ten dimensions: studious, physical attractiveness, economic status, group cohesion, strictness, etc. Responses were ranked on a 7-point scale, ranging from 0- not at all characteristics to 7- extremely characteristic. Participants were also asked to rate on a 9-point scale how similar people were within their sorority + how similar were people in an opposing sorority. 9 - extremely similar to 0- extremely dissimilar

Question 3

Park and Rothbart (1982) FINDINGS

Answer 3

All three sorority members viewed their sorority members as being more dissimilar and perceived the out-group members as more similar to one another. This is known as the out-group homogeneity effect. The results also showed that each sorority member ranked their sorority high in favorable characteristics such as physical attractiveness and ranked these low when assessing out-groups

Question 4

Park and Rothbart (1982) CONCLUSION

Answer 4

People generalize out-groups unfavorably and demonstrate an in-group bias. Out-group homogeneity effect can aid in the creation of stereotypes, as there is a preconceived notion about a group of people. Also demonstrates positive distinctiveness as participants show in-group favoritism and out-group discrimination

Question 5

Social Identity Theory

Answer 5

Social identity theory is a theory of intergroup conflict and aims to explain why conflict and discrimination occur as a result of social categorization, identification, social comparison, and positive distinctiveness. The theory is rooted in the premise that there exist two different types of self. There is a social identity (in terms of social groups) and personal identity (the more individual and private self). The theory links social identity and conflict through various mechanisms.

Question 6

Social Categorization

Answer 6

the existence of social identities based on social groups lead to social categorization - the cognitive process of categorizing people into in-groups and out-groups based on a particular characteristic.

Question 7

Social Identification

Answer 7

Identification is when members identify themselves as a member of a social group and take on their values and beliefs. Some of these groups such as nationality are by default, while others are by choice.

Question 8

Social Comparison

Answer 8

in identifying with a social group, this distinction leads to a highly related process of making direct comparisons between your group (the in-group) and other groups (the out-group)

Question 9

Positive Distinctiveness

Answer 9

to achieve a positive social identity and increase self-esteem, members of a group will typically strive to make themselves better (positive) and different (distinct) from out-groups. Positive distinctiveness lead to actions that typically perpetuate out-group discrimination (disadvantages for the out-group) and in-group favouritism (bias towards the benefits of the in-group). Can also result in the out-group homogeneity effect: perceiving out-group members as being more similar to one another than in-group members. This can lead to stereotypes and similar poor treatment of out-group members. As a result, conflict is caused by our desire to create a positive social identity.

Question 10

Kearney and Levine (2014) AIM

Answer 10

Assess the impact of the show “16 and pregnant” on teen sexual behaviour and the rate of teen pregnancy

Question 11

Kearney and Levine (2014) PROCEDURE

Answer 11

The reality TV show follows the lives of pregnant teenagers during the final months of their pregnancy. Identified geographic areas (e.g. particular cities) where the show “16 and pregnant” was particularly popular. Measured whether these geographic areas had a greater reduction in teen pregnancy compared to other areas where the show was not as popular. Also analyzed Google searches immediately following a new episode of “16 and pregnant”

Question 12

Kearney and Levine (2014) FINDINGS

Answer 12

Areas where the show was popular, had a greater reduction (4.3%) in teen pregnancy compared with other areas in the 18 months following the initial airing. After the show there typically was a spike in Google searched for terms such as “how to get birth control”

Question 13

Kearney and Levine (2014) CONCLUSION

Answer 13

The show had a positive impact in reducing the rate of teen pregnancy. Supports the idea of vicarious learning as viewers were discouraged from having children at a young age because of how challenging it is.

Question 14

Socialization

Answer 14

the process of becoming a member of a social group by providing the individual with the skills, habits, and norms necessary for participating within their society.

Question 15

Primary Socialization

Answer 15

a child learns the basic rules and norms of living in his or her group. Typically this begins at the most basic level in the family, school, and peer groups.

Question 16

Secondary Socialization

Answer 16

includes elements of the larger community, extended family, and the media. Such forces tend to influence adherence to or deviance from norms indirectly. Developed by Albert Bandura, the theory is an attempt to explain how we learn from others and how socialization, the transmission of cultural norms, occurs. Contrary to behaviorist theory that states all learning is from direct experience of rewards and punishments, Bandura suggested learning can also be done through observational learning - learning through the observation of others. Bandura recognized that certain conditions are necessary for observational learning to take place: Attention, Retention, Motivation, and Potential

Question 17

Attention

Answer 17

observers must attend the modelled behaviour. This is typically achieved if the observer can closely identify with the model and are from the same in-group

Question 18

Retention

Answer 18

behavior must be consistent and easy to remember

Question 19

Motivation

Answer 19

observers must want to reproduce the behavior and expect a certain outcome from it or avoid a certain consequence

Question 20

Potential

Answer 20

observers must physically and/or mentally be able to carry out the behavior. There needs to be a level of self-efficacy - a belief one can master particular skills or behavior

Question 21

Stereotype

Answer 21

a preconceived notion about a group of people. They tend to be generalizations about entire groups. This differs from prejudice which is a preconceived negative belief about an individual based on their group membership and discrimination which is negative behavior based on a stereotype or prejudice. Rooted in two underlying cognitive processes: 1. Categorization: placing people into a category based on an attribute 2. Generalization: applying a belief to all members of a group

Stereotypes may form indirectly as a product of culture and society, in which gatekeepers, peers, and/or media, can have an impact in creating and/or reinforcing stereotypes. Stereotypes may also form directly as a result of our own experience with other people. The grain of truth hypothesis - suggests that stereotypes are based on small truths people have experienced. For example, having a male doctor and believing all doctors are male. Both these theories are further reinforced by ideas of the out-group homogeneity effect, which describes how we perceive out-group members as being more similar to another than an in-group members. This makes it easier for stereotypes and generalizations to form. Lastly, stereotypes may be made from illusory correlations which is when people see two variables as related when they are not. For example, perceived correlations between a group and a trial and/or behaviour are exaggerated, despite being statistically less frequent.

Question 22

Self-fulfilling prophecy

Answer 22

people unconsciously change their behaviour, causing a schema to become true. The stereotype may be positive or negative.

Question 23

Stereotype threat

Answer 23

members of the stereotyped group may inadvertently reinforce a negative stereotype by changing their behavior as a result of increased anxiety and apprehension. Therefore, causing the negative schema to become true

Question 24

Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) AIM

Answer 24

Investigate whether students of whom greater intellectual growth is expected will show greater intellectual growth

Question 25

Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) PROCEDURE

Answer 25

320 students, grades 1 to 6. Teachers in the school were told that certain students were expected to be “growth superstars”, based on the results of their IQ tests. In reality, the test was fictitious and students were chosen at random

Question 26

Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) FINDINGS

Answer 26

In the year of the experiment, control-group students gained an average of 8.4 IQ points, while students from the experimental group gained 12.2 IQ points. Amon grade 1 students, the average gain of the superstars was 27.4 IQ points in comparison to the average of 12 IQ points

Question 27

Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) CONCLUSION

Answer 27

Changes in teachers’ expectations produce changes in students’ achievement. Stereotypes we have about other people may affect their behaviour through the process of self-fulfilling prophecy

Question 28

Berry and Katz (1967) AIM

Answer 28

Investigate whether cultural differences in individualism vs collectivism affect conformity

Question 29

Berry and Katz (1967) PROCEDURE

Answer 29

Participants were from the Temne people of Sierra Leone and Inuit people from Northern Canada. The Inuits are regarded as an individualist society as people are responsible for their survival. In comparison, individuals from Sierra Leone are regarded as a collectivist society as individuals rely on each other for food sharing. Conformity was measured using the Asch paradigm: participants were shown a series of lines of varying lengths. Participants are then asked to identify which of the other lines of equal length to the target line. As participants shared their answers, others are told to purposely give the wrong answer. The goal is to see if participants will pick the correct answer or conform with the group even though it is wrong. There were 18 trials, 12 of which were answered incorrectly by the confederates.

Question 30

Berry and Katz (1967) FINDINGS

Answer 30

The Temne people from Sierra Leone had a significant tendency to accept the suggestion of the group and select the incorrect response. The Inuit people were mostly unaffected by the suggestion of the majority

Question 31

Berry and Katz (1967) CONCLUSION

Answer 31

Individualist Inuit participants conform less often than the collectivist Temne because of cultural values of individualism. This is because conformity to group norms is ingrained as a cultural value in the Temne society, which depends on tight social relations. Culture has an impact on how individuals read the situation and how to best behave

Question 32

Culture

Answer 32

Culture is the set of attitudes, behaviours, and symbols shared by a large group of people, usually communicated from one generation to the next. Cultural groups are characterized by distinct norms and conventions - the unwritten rules and standards that tell us appropriate behavior, beliefs, values, and attitudes. The origins of culture can be explained by evolution, as culture is a response of a group of people to the demands of their environment.

Question 33

Surface culture

Answer 33

aspects of a culture that can be easily observed such as behaviors, customs, and traditions.

Question 34

Deep culture

Answer 34

the cognitive elements of a culture such as gender roles, rules, and values that are not easily observed. This is often the focus of psychology. The influence of culture on cognition can be explained by a motivation to conform to the norms of potential observers. So the motivation to conform to cultural norms is how culture influences cognition. Such pressure can vary from one culture to the next and therefore impact behavior.

Question 35

Cultural dimension

Answer 35

a group of related cultural values which includes rankings at opposite ends of the spectrum. Such dimensions provide criteria to compare differences in values between cultures. Geert Hofstede (1973) conducted an extensive study involving over 100, 000 participants from more than 70 countries and identified 6 dimensions of culture to help explain patterns of human behavior across cultures.

Question 36

Ethic approach

Answer 36

refers to studying cultures from an outside perspective which enables cross-cultural comparisons. An example of a cultural dimension is individualism vs. collectivism - which determines whether individuals prioritize themselves or the group when making decisions.

Question 37

Power Distance Index (PDI)

Answer 37

a higher PDI means the more powerful are firmly established and are rarely questioned.

Question 38

Masculinity vs. Femininity

Answer 38

masculine values include autonomy and competitiveness; feminine values include modesty and compassion