Psych Exam 2 Flashcards
(192 cards)
1
Q
Memory
A
the retention of information or experience over time
2
Q
Encoding
A
the process by which information gets into memory storage
3
Q
Selective attention
A
focusing on a specific aspect of experiences while ignoring others
4
Q
Divided attention
A
concentrating on more than one activity at the same time
5
Q
sustained attention
A
the ability to maintain attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time
6
Q
levels of processing
A
a continuum from shallow to intermediate to deep
7
Q
shallow processing
A
physical and perceptual features are analyzed
8
Q
intermediate processing
A
stimulus is recognized and labeled
9
Q
deep processing
A
semantic, meaningful, and symbolic characteristics are used
10
Q
elaboration
A
the formation of a number of different connections around a stimulus at any level of encoding
11
Q
Atkinson-Shiffrin theory
A
separates memory storage into sensory memory, short term memory, and long term memory
12
Q
sensory memory
A
holds information from the world in it original sensory form for only an instant
13
Q
echoic memory
A
auditory sensory memory
14
Q
iconic memory
A
visual sensory memory
15
Q
short term memory
A
a limited-capacity memory system in which information is retained for only 30 seconds
16
Q
chunking
A
grouping information that exceeds the 7±2 memory span so it can be remembered as single units
17
Q
rehearsal
A
the conscious repetition of information
18
Q
working memory
A
a combination of components including short term memory and attention, that allow us to hold information temporarily as we perform tasks, 3 components, phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad, and the central executive
19
Q
phonological loop
A
specialized to briefly store speech based information about the sounds of language
20
Q
visuo-spatial sketckpad
A
stores visual and spatial information
21
Q
central executive
A
integrates information from the phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad, and long-term memory, important to attention, planning, and organizing
22
Q
Long-term memory
A
relatively permanent type of memory that stores huge amounts of information for a long time
23
Q
explicit memory
A
the conscious recollection of information such as specific facts and events, hippocampus, temporal lobes, limbic system
24
Q
episodic memory
A
part of explicit memory, the retention of information about the where, when, and what
25
semantic memory
part of explicit memory, a persons knowledge about the world
26
implicit memory
memory in which behavior is affected by prior experience without the conscious recollection of that experience, three parts, procedural memory, classical conditioning, and priming, cerebellum
27
procedural memory
involves memory for skills
28
priming
the activation of information that people already have in storage to help them remember new information better
29
schema
a preexisting mental concept or framework that helps to organize and interpret information
30
retrieval
when information that was retained in memory comes out of storage
31
serial position effect
the tendency to recall items at the beginning and end of a list more readily
32
primacy effect
better recall for items at the beginning of the list
33
recency effect
better recall for items at the end of the list
34
recall
a memory task in which the person must retrieve previously learned information
35
recognition
a memory task in which the person only has to recognize learned items
36
encoding specificity principle
information present at the time of encoding or learning tends to be effective as a retrieval cue
37
context-dependent memory
people remember better when they attempt to recall information in the same context in which they learned it
38
autobiographical memory
a special form a episodic memory, a persons recollections of their own life experiences
39
flashbulb memory
the memory of emotionally significant events
40
motivated forgetting
occurs when individuals forget something because it is too painful or anxiety laden
41
ebbinghaus's forgetting curve
memorized 13 nonsense syllables and assessed how many he could remember as time passed, even after an hour he could only remember a few, concluded forgetting takes place soon after we learn something
42
interference theory
people forget not because memories are lost from storage but because other information gets in the way
43
proactive interference
occurs when material that was learned earlier disrupts the recall of information learned later
44
retroactive interference
occurs when material that was learned layer disrupts the recall of information learned earlier
45
decay theory
the passage of time always increases forgetting
46
tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
a type of effortful retrieval that occurs when we are confident we know something but can't quite pull it out of memory
47
amnesia
the loss of memory
48
anterograde amnesia
a memory disorder that affects the retention of new information and events
49
retrograde amnesia
involves memory loss for a segment of the past but not for new events
50
cognition
how information is processed and manipulated in remembering, thinking, and knowing
51
artificial intelligence
focuses on creating machines capable of performing activities that require intelligence when they are done by people
52
thinking
involves manipulating information mentally by forming concepts, solving problems, making decisions, and reflecting in a critical or creative manner
53
concepts
mental categories that are used to group objects, events, and characteristics
54
problem solving
finding an appropriate way to attain a goal when the goal is not readily available
54
prototype model
emphasizes that when people evaluate whether a given item reflects a certain concept, they compare the item with the most typical items in that category
55
subgoals
intermediate goals or problems to solve that put us in a better position for reaching the final goal or solution
56
algorithms
strategies that guarantee a solution to a problem
57
heuristics
shortcut strategies or guidelines that suggest a solution to a problem but don't guarantee an answer
58
functional fixedness
when individuals fail to solve a problem because they are fixated on a things usual functions
59
reasoning
the mental activity of transforming information to reach conclusions
60
inductive reasoning
reasoning from specific observations to make generalizations
61
deductive reasoning
reasoning from a general case that we know to be true to a specific instance
62
decision making
evaluating alternatives and choosing among them
63
loss aversion
the tendency to strongly prefer to avoid losses compared to acquiring gains
64
confirmation bias
the tendency to search for and use information that supports our ideas rather than refutes them
65
hindsight bias
our tendency to report falsely, after the fact, that we accurately predicted the outcome
66
availability heuristic
a prediction about the probability of an event based on the ease of recalling or imagining similar events
67
base rate neglect
the tendency to ignore information about general principles in favor of very specific but vivid information
68
representativeness heuristic
the tendency to make judgments about group memberships based on physical appearances or the match between a person and one's stereotype of a group rather than on available base rate information
69
critical thinking
thinking reflectively and productively and evaluating the evidence
70
mindfulness
being alert and mentally present for ones everyday activities
71
divergent thinking
produces many solutions to the same problem
72
convergent thinking
produces the single best solution to a problem
73
intelligence
an all-purpose ability to do well on cognitive tasks, to solve problems, and to learn from experience
74
validity
the extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure
75
reliability
the extent to which a test gives a consistent, reproducible measure of performance
76
Intelligence quotient
an individual's mental age divided by chronological age multiplied by 100
77
normal distribution
a symmetrical bell-shaped curve, with a majority of the scores falling in the middle of the possible range and a few scores appearing towards the extremes
78
culture fair tests
intelligence tests that are intended to be culturally unbiased
79
triarchic theory of intelligence
intelligence comes in multiple forms, analytical, creative, and practical
80
infinite generativity
the ability to produce an endless number of meaningful sentences
81
phonology
the languages sound system
82
morphology
a languages rules for word formation
83
syntax
a languages rules for combining words to form acceptable phrases and sentences
84
semantics
the meaning of words and sentences in a particular language
85
pragmatics
the useful character of language and the ability of language to communicate even more meaning than is said
86
Chomsky's theory of language development
humans come into the world biologically prewired to learn language at a certain time and in a certain way
87
developement
the pattern of continuity and change in human characteristics that occurs throughout the course of life
88
cross-sectional designs
several people are assessed at one time
89
longitudinal study
assesses the same participants multiple times over a lengthy period
90
nature
a persons biological inheritance
91
nurture
a persons environmental and social experiences
92
resilience
a persons ability to recover from or adapt to difficult times
93
prenatal development
germinal, embryonic, and fetal periods
94
germinal period
weeks 1 and 2, zygote goes through cell divisions and attaches to the uterine wall
95
embryonic period
weeks 3-8, zygote becomes an embryo, support systems are developed, organs appear, neural tube forms
96
fetal period
2 to 9 months, begins to grow in size and move
97
teratogen
any agent that causes a problem in prenatal development
98
cognitive development
how thought, intelligence, and language processes change as people mature
99
Piaget's theory of cognitive development
human beings use schemas to make sense of their experience, people use assimilation and accommodation to adapt their schemas, development is in 4 stages
100
assimilation
people incorporate new information into preexisting schemas
101
accommodation
people change their schemas in response to new experiences
102
sensorimotor stage
birth to age two, coordinating sensory experiences with physical actions
103
object permanence
crucial accomplishment in the sensorimotor stage, understanding that objects continue to exist even if they can't be seen or heard
104
preoperational stage
age 2-7, represents the world with words and images, more symbolic and egocentric
105
concrete operational stage
age 7-11, can now reason logically about concrete events and classify objects into different sets, can reverse operations
106
formal operational stage
age 11-15, more abstract thought, hypothetical-deductive reasoning
107
executive function
complex, cognitive processes
108
temperament
an individuals behavior style and characteristic ways of responding
109
infant attachment
the close emotional bond between an infant and its caregiver
110
secure attachment
how infants use their caregiver as a secure base from which to explore the environment
111
Eriksons theory of socioemotional development
8 stages of development from infancy to adulthood
112
trust vs. mistrust
infancy to 1.5, trust requires physical comfort and minimal amount of fear about the future
113
autonomy vs. shame and doubt
1.5 to 3, after gaining trust, infants discover they have a will of their own, assert independence and if not allowed they have shame/doubt
114
initiative vs. guilt
3 to 5, widening social worlds, assuming more responsibility,
115
industry vs. inferiority
6 to puberty, growing intelligence
116
identitiy vs. identity confusion
10 to 20, figuring out your identity
117
intimacy vs. isolation
20s and 30s, having partners
118
generativity vs. stagnation
40s and 50s, want to assist the younger generation
119
integrity vs. despair
60s and on, looking back on their lives
120
authoritarian parenting
strict and punitive, limits and controls the child with little verbal exchange
121
authoritative parenting
encourages the child to be independent, but still places limits, more collaborative
122
neglectful parenting
lack of parental involvement
123
permissive parenting
places few limits, lets the children do whatever they want
124
emerging adulthood
the transitional period from adolescence to adulthood
125
gender
the social and psychological aspects of ones experience as male, female, or other
126
gender identity
a persons inner concept of self on the gender spectrum
127
gender role
the types of behaviors society expects of people of different genders
128
gender similarities hypothesis
the idea that people of different genders are much more similar than they are different
129
Kohlbergs theory of moral reasoning
created stages of moral development, preconventional, conventional, and postconventional
130
preconventional stage
moral reasoning is based on consequences
131
conventional stage
moral reasoning abides by standards learned from parents and social law
132
postconventional stage
moral reasoning recognizes alternative options, explores the options, and develops a personal moral code
133
prosocial behavior
behavior that is intended to benefit other people
134
motivation
the force that moves people to behave, think, and feel the way they do
135
instinct
an innate biological pattern of behavior that is assumed to be universal throughout a species
136
need
physical or biological deprivation that energizes the drive to eliminate or reduce that deprivation
137
drive
an aroused state that occurs because of a physiological need
138
drive reduction theory
as the drive becomes stronger, we are motivated to reduce it
139
homeostasis
the bodys tendency to remain at equilibrium, goal of drive reduction theory
140
yerkes-dodson law
performance is best under conditions of moderate arousal, not low or high arousal
141
Maslows hierarchy of human needs
from the strongest to weakest needs, physiological, safety, love and belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization
142
self-actualization
the motivation to develop one full potential
143
self-determination theory
there are three basic organismic needs: competence, relatedness, and autonomy
144
intrinsic motivation
based on internal factors
145
extrinsic motivation
based on external factors
146
self-regulation
the process by which an individual effortfully controls behavior to pursue important objectives
147
James-Lange theory
emotion results from physiological states triggered by stimuli in the environment
148
Cannon-Bard theory
emotion and physiological reactions occur simultaneously
149
two-factor theory of emotion
emotion is determined by two factors: physiological arousal and cognitive labeling
150
facial feedback hypothesis
facial expressions can influence emotions as well as reflect them
151
display rules
sociocultural standards that determine when, where, and how emotions should be expressed
152
valence
whether it is pleasant or unpleasant
153
personality
a pattern of enduring, distinctive thoughts, emotions, and behaviors, that characterizes the way a person adapts to the world
154
psychodynamic perspectives
emphasizes that personality is primarily unconscious
155
id
unconscious drives, seeks pleasure
156
ego
deals with the demands of reality, attempts to bring pleasure within the restrictions of reality, partially conscious
157
superego
internal judge of our behaviors, evaluates morality, considers if the ids impulses can be satisfied in societies norms
158
defense mechanisms
tactics the ego uses to reduce anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality
159
denial
ego refuses to acknowledge anxiety-producing realities
160
displacement
directing unacceptable impulses at a less threatening target
161
repression
pushes unacceptable impulses into the unconscious mind
162
oral stage
first 18 months, pleasure centers in the mouth
163
anal stage
18 to 36 months, pleasure involves the anus and urethra and their functions
164
phallic stage
3 to 6 years, pleasure focuses on genitals
165
latency period
6 to puberty, child sets aside all interest in sexuality
166
genital stage
adolescence and adulthood, a time of sexual awakening
167
humanistic perspectives
stresses conscious awareness and a person's capacity for growth and positive qualities
168
unconditional positive regard
Rogers term for being accepted, valued, and treated positively regardless of one's behavior
169
conditions of worth
the standards we must live up to in order to receive positive regard from others
170
self-concept
our conscious representation of who we are and who we wish to become
171
trait theories
personality consists of broad, enduring traits that lead to characteristic responses
172
big five factors of personality
the broad traits that are thought to describe the main dimensions of personality; extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and neuroticism
173
openness to experience
imaginative and interested in cognitively engaging with abstract ideas
174
conscientiousness
reliable, hard-working, dependable
175
extraversion
outgoing, sociable, lively
176
agreeableness
kind, nice, trusting
177
neuroticism
a worrier, anxious, insecure
178
social cognitive perspectives
emphasize conscious awareness, beliefs, expectations, and goals, explore the persons ability to reason
179
Bandura's social cognitive theory
behavior, environment, and person/cognitive factors are all important when understanding personality
180
reciprocal determinism
describes the way behavior, environment, and person/cognitive factors interact to create personality
181
internal locus of control
a sense of behavioral control as coming from inside the person
182
external locus of control
a sense of behavioral control as coming from outside the person
183
self-efficacy
the belief that one has the competence to accomplish a given goal or task
184
self-report tests
directly asks people whether specific items describe their personality traits
185
empirically keyed test
a type of self-report test that is created by first identifying two groups that are known to be different on the variable one wants to measure
186
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
a type of empirically keyed test, it is used to assess mental health, make employment decisions, and in forensic settings
187
face validity
a test item has face validity if it seems on the surface to fit the trait in question
188
projective tests
presents people with an ambiguous stimulus and asks them to describe it or to tell a story about it
189
Rorschach inkblot test
test has 10 cards that you view one at a time, and you describe what you see in the inkblots
190
thematic apperception test (TAT)
designed to elicit stories that reveal a person's unconscious motivations, it consists of a series of pictures and the taker is asked to tell a story about each of the pictures
191
