Psych Exam 4 Flashcards
(130 cards)
1
Q
Intrapersonal topics
A
(those that pertain to the individual) include emotions and attitudes, the self, and social cognition (the ways in which we think about ourselves and others)
2
Q
Interpersonal topics
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(those that pertain to dyads and groups) include helping behavior, aggression, prejudice and discrimination, attraction and close relationships, and group processes and intergroup relationships.
3
Q
Situationism
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describes a perspective that behavior and actions are determined by the immediate environment and surroundings; a view promoted by social psychologists
4
Q
Dispositionism
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those that believe people’s actions are conditioned by some internal factor, such as beliefs, values, personality traits or abilities, rather than the situation they find themselves in.
ex:a dispositionist might explain bankruptcy as the largely self-inflicted result of personal laziness and/or imprudence. Situationists, in contrast, view bankruptcy as frequently caused by more complicated external forces, such as divorce or the medical and other costs of unanticipated illness.
5
Q
Internal Factor
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excuse
ex: a person who is late for work claims that heavy traffic caused the delay
6
Q
a dispositional view tends to lay _________ for inappropriate behavior
A
blame
ex: a driver in a road rage incident claims the driver who cut her off is an aggressive person
Dispositional attribution assigns the cause of behavior to some internal characteristic of a person rather than to outside forces.
7
Q
As a field, social psychology focuses on ________ in predicting human behavior.
A
situational factors
8
Q
social psychology
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the study of how people affect one another’s thought, feelings, and behaviors, with particular focus on the power of the situation
9
Q
fundamental attribution error
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the tendency to overemphasize internal factors as attributions for behavior and underestimate the power of the situation
ex: For example, if someone is late for a meeting, individuals might be inclined to attribute it to that person’s laziness or lack of punctuality (internal factors) rather than considering external factors such as traffic, unexpected events, or transportation issues.
10
Q
individualistic culture
A
culture that focuses on individual achievement and autonomy
-these ppl have the greatest tendency to commit the fundamental attribution error
What are some examples of fundamental attribution error?
For instance, if you’ve ever chastised a “lazy employee” for being late to a meeting and then proceeded to make an excuse for being late yourself that same day, you’ve made the fundamental attribution error.
11
Q
collectivist culture
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culture that focuses on communal relationships with others such as family, friends, and community
12
Q
individualistic culture (characteristics list)
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- Achievement oriented
- Focuses on autonomy
- Dispositional perspective
- Independent
- Analytic thinking style
13
Q
Collectivistic Culture (characteristics list)
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- Relationship oriented
- Focus on group autonomy
- Situational perspective
- Interdependent
- Holistic thinking style
14
Q
How would ppl from individualistic and collectivistic cultures differ in explaining why they won an important sporting event?
A
individualistic cultures- would attribute athletic success to individual hard work and ability
collectivistic cultures- would attribute athletic success to the team working together and the support and encouragement of the coach
15
Q
actor-observer bias
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the tendency to blame our actions on the situation and blame the actions of others on their personalities
ex:As you are walking down the street, you trip and fall. You immediately blame the slippery pavement, an external cause. However, if you saw a random stranger trip and fall, you would probably attribute this to an internal factor, such as clumsiness or inattentiveness
16
Q
self-serving bias
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the tendency for people to take personal credit for success but blame failure on external factors or other people
17
Q
Attribution
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explanation for the behavior of other people
18
Q
Making internal attributions for your successes and making external attributions for your failures is an example of ________
A
self-serving bias
-The self-serving bias allows us to feel good about our successes (by thinking that we’re directly responsible for them) and discount our failures (by attributing them to forces outside of our control)
19
Q
just-world hypothesis
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the assumption that the world is fair and that therefore people get what they deserve and deserve what they get
20
Q
social role
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the pattern of behavior that is expected of a person who is in a particular social position
ex: men= more likely to hold positions of power like being CEO; women= more likely to take care of kids and do housework
21
Q
social norm
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group’s expectations regarding what is appropriate and acceptable for the thoughts and behavior of its members
22
Q
script
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person’s knowledge about the sequence of events in a specific setting
ex: how you act when you are at a restaurant
23
Q
Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment
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Stanford university’s experiment conducted in a mock prison- demonstrated the power of social roles, social norms, and scripts
24
Q
What are the 3 components of attitude?
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affective (feelings), behavioral (the effect of the attitude on behavior), cognitive (belief and knowledge)
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cognitive component of attitude
Beliefs or knowledge about something
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affective component of attitude
refers to the emotional reaction one has toward an attitude object. For example, 'I feel scared when I think about or see a snake
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behavioral component of attitude
the way a person acts/behaves with respect to something
Ex: 'I avoid snakes and scream if I see one.
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cognitive dissonance
the state of having inconsistent thoughts, beliefs, or attitudes, especially as relating to behavioral decisions and attitude change.
ex:I believe in eating health but i dont eat healthy all the time
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experiment by Aronson and Mills- effort effect
college students met- assigned to 1/3 conditions: no initiation, easy initiation, difficult initiation.- found that ppl who went though difficult initiation to join the group rated the group more favorably.
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Yale attitude change approach
people are most likely to change their attitudes in response to persuasive messages.
- Hovland demonstrated that certain features of the source of a persuasive message, the content of the message, and the characteristics of the audience will influence the persuasiveness of a message
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Elaboration Likelihood Model
a theory of persuasion that suggests that there are two different ways (central route and peripheral route) people can be persuaded of something, depending on how invested they are in a topic.
An example of the Elaboration Likelihood Model is a consumer carefully evaluating the features and benefits of a new smartphone (central route processing) versus making a quick decision based on attractive packaging (peripheral route processing).- Instead of focusing on the facts and a product's quality, the peripheral route relies on association with positive characteristics such as positive emotions and celebrity endorsement.
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central route persuasion
Central route to persuasion occurs when a person is persuaded by the content of the message.
- ex: car company persuading someone to buy a car- they will emphasize on card features- this is a direct route to persuasion that focuses on the quality of the info
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peripheral route persuasion
one person persuades another person; an indirect route that relies on association of peripheral cues (such as positive emotions and celebrity endorsement) to associate positivity with a message
ex:having a popular athlete advertise athletic shoes is a common method used to encourage young adults to purchase the shoes.
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Foot-in-the-door Technique
persuasion of one person by another person, encouraging a person to agree to a small favor, or to buy a small item, only to later request a larger favor or purchase of a larger item
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confederate
person who works for a researcher and is aware of the experiment, but who acts as a participant; used to manipulate social situations as part of the research design
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Asch experiment on conformity
experimented how people would rather conform than state their own individual answer even though they know the group's answer is wrong
ex: with diff length lines
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conformity
when individuals change their behavior to go along with the group even if they do not agree with the group
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Asch effect
is the influence of the group majority on an individual's judgment
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What are the 2 categories of the motivation to conform?
1. normative social influence, 2. informational social influence
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normative social influence
where a person conforms in order to be accepted and belong to a group. They do this because it is socially rewarding and/or to avoid social rejection (e.g. ridicule for not 'fitting in').
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informational social influence
a type of social influence in which individuals modify their behavior, opinions, or beliefs based on the information they receive from others.
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obedience
changing one's behavior at the command of an authority figure or to avoid consequences
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Stanley Milgram's Experiment
- tested boundaries of obedience
- participants told to shock learners if they gave wrong answer
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groupthink
the modification of the opinions of members of a group to align with what they believe is the group consensus
-phenomenon of group conformity
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Group Polarization
strengthening of the original group attitude after discussing views within the group
-phenomenon in group setting
ex:a group of women who hold moderately feminist views tend to demonstrate heightened pro-feminist beliefs following group discussion.
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social facilitation
improved performance when an audience is watching versus when the individual performs the behavior alone
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Social Loafing
exertion of less effort by a person working in a group because individual performance cannot be evaluated separately from the group, thus causing performance decline on easy tasks
ex:if my friend and I are baking bread she can do more work but ill still say we both made the bread
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bystander effect
occurs when the presence of others discourages an individual from intervening in an emergency situation, against a bully, or during an assault or other crime.
The greater the number of bystanders, the less likely it is for any one of them to provide help to a person in distress.
49
pluralistic ignorance
a social phenomenon where individuals privately reject a norm but conform to it publicly due to a mistaken belief that others in the group accept it.
Individuals may conform to what they perceive as the majority opinion, assuming that others around them endorse a particular norm, while in reality, many individuals in the group may privately reject that norm as well.
50
diffusion of responsibility
when people who need to make a decision wait for someone else to act instead.
when deciding whether to help a person in need, knowing that there are others who could also provide assistance relieves bystanders of some measure of personal responsibility, reducing the likelihood that bystanders will intervene
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cost-benefit analysis
a decision-making process that compares the cost of an action or thing against the expected benefit to help determine the best course of action
ex:drinking might bring you the benefit of managing stress
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Reciprocal altruism
A behavioral strategy in which an agent sacrifices for the benefit of a recipient who is not closely related, where a return benefit to the agent may be reciprocated in the future.behavior that benefits another with the expectation that those benefits will be returned in the future
ex:vampire bats that are more likely to share their food (by regurgitation) with hungry social companions if they have received food from them in the past
- "we are better off in the long run if we help one another"
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arousal: cost-reward model
claims that seeing a person in need leads to the arousal of unpleasant feelings, and observers are motivated to eliminate that aversive state, often by helping the victim.
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egoism
a motivation for helping that has the improvement of the helper's own circumstances as its primary goal
ex:I show up for work because I have an interest in being paid.
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empathy-altruism model
an altruistic theory proposed by Batson (2011) that claims that people who put themselves in the shoes of a victim and imagining how the victim feel will experience empathic concern that evokes an altruistic motivation for helping.
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altruism
a motivation for helping that has the improvement of another's welfare as its ultimate goal, with no expectation of any benefits for the helper
56
The concept of altruism refers to ________
unselfish behavior that benefits others without regard to consequences for the self
57
The bystander effect likely occurs due to ________
diffusion of responsibility
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prejudice
negative attitudes and feelings toward individuals based solely on their membership in a particular group
-feelings may influence treatment of others, leading to discrimination
-ex:"I hate Yankees fans; they make me angry."
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Prejudice is to ________ as discrimination is to ________
feelings; behavior
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racism
prejudice and discrimination toward individuals based solely on their race
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sexism
prejudice and discrimination toward individuals based on their sex
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ageism
prejudice and discrimination toward individuals based solely on their age
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homophobia
prejudice and discrimination against individuals based solely on their sexual orientation
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self-fulfilling prophecy
treating stereotyped group members according to our biased expectations only to have this treatment influence the individual to act according to our stereotypic expectations, thus confirming our stereotypic beliefs
ex:Jane believes she will fail her exam, so she doesn't study and ends up failing
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confirmation bias
people's tendency to process information by looking for, or interpreting, information that is consistent with their existing beliefs.
seeking out information that supports our stereotypes while ignoring information that is inconsistent with our stereotypes
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in-group
group that we identify with or see ourselves as belonging to
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out-group
group that we don't belong to—one that we view as fundamentally different from us
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in-group bias
preference for our own group over other groups
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Scapegoating
act of blaming an out-group when the in-group experiences frustration or is blocked from obtaining a goal
ex:"I couldn't see anything because of all the tall people"
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hostile aggression
aggression motivated by feelings of anger with intent to cause pain
ex:mark attacks fred in his office cause he fired him and was mad
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instrumental aggression
aggression motivated by achieving a goal (rather than driven by anger or frustration) and does not necessarily involve intent to cause pain
ex:a person who steals someone else's lunch from the office refrigerator because they are hungry and don't have any food of their own. In this case, the aggression (stealing the lunch) is a means to satisfy the person's basic need for food, rather than an expression of anger or hostility toward the lunch owner. The aggression is instrumental in achieving the goal of obtaining a meal.
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situational identity
the way an individual's identity can adapt or change based on the specific context or situation they find themselves in.
For example, a person's behavior, language, and self-expression may vary when they are at work, with family, or in social settings. In each situation, individuals may emphasize different aspects of their identity that they believe are most relevant or appropriate for that specific context.
73
cultural intelligence
The ability and willingness to apply cultural awareness to practical uses
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observational learning
type of learning that occurs by watching others
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Yerkes-Dodson Law
simple tasks are performed best when arousal levels are relatively high, while complex tasks are best performed when arousal is lower
ex:you might perform better at an athletic event you are excited about participating in
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drive theory
the belief that behavior is motivated by drives that arise from biological needs that demand satisfaction
ex:Thirst, hunger, and the need for warmth are all examples of drives. A drive creates an unpleasant state, a tension that needs to be reduced. In order to reduce this state of tension, humans and animals seek out ways to fulfill these biological needs.
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Self-efficacy
individual's belief in his own capabilities or capacities to complete a task
ex: someone who believes they can successfully learn a new skill, such as playing an instrument,
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intrinsic motivation
motivation based on internal feelings rather than external rewards
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extrinsic motivation
motivation that arises from external factors or rewards
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Albert Bandura (1994) theorized that an individual's sense of self-efficacy plays a pivotal role in what type of behavior?
motivating behavior
81
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
spectrum of needs ranging from basic biological needs to social needs to self-actualization
Selfactualization-desire to become the most one can be
Esteem- respect, self esteem, status
Love and belonging-friendship, intamacy, family
Safety needs- personal security, employment, resources, health
Physiological needs-air, water, food
82
James-Lange theory
physical changes in the body happen first, which then leads to the experience of emotion.
emotions arise from physiological arousal
ex:your heart beating wildly would lead you to realize that you are afraid.
83
What are the components of emotion?
1. physiological arousal
2. psychological appraisal
3. subjective experience
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Cannon-Bard Theory
physiological arousal and emotional experience occur at the same time
-ex: when you see the venomous snake, you feel fear at exactly the same time that your body mounts its fight or flight response.
thalamus controlled the emotions part of your brain
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facial feedback hypothesis
facial expressions are capable of influencing our emotions
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Schachter-Singer two-factor theory
physical arousal occurs first, and then the individual must identify the reason for this arousal to experience and label it as an emotion.
theory that to experience emotion one must be physically aroused and cognitively label the arousal
-emotions consist of two factors: physiological and cognitive
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polygraph
lie detector test that measures physiological arousal of individuals as they answer a series of questions
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You feel your heart pounding and experience surprise at the same time. This is an example of the ________ theory of emotion.
Cannon-Bard
-The Cannon-Bard theory states that we feel emotions and experience physiological reactions such as sweating, trembling, and muscle tension simultaneously.
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You feel sad because you are crying. This is an example of the ________ theory of emotion.
James-Lange
-The James-Lange theory states that the autonomic reaction triggers the feeling - that each physiological response is associated with each emotion.
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You feel your heart pounding when someone cuts you off on the freeway. You interpret the arousal as anger. This fits the ideas behind the ________ of emotion.
Schachter-Singer
-The Schachter-Singer two-factor theory states that emotion is based on two factors, physiological arousal and cognitive label.
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cognitive-mediational theory
our emotions are determined by our appraisal of the stimulus
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According to the ________ theory of emotion, emotional experiences arise from physiological arousal
James-Lange
-The James-Lange theory states that the autonomic reaction triggers the feeling - that each physiological response is associated with each emotion.
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Amygdala
fear, emotions, and motivation
if you see something that frightens you, your amygdala might tell your body to panic
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basolateral complex
sensory areas of the brain; it is critical for classical conditioning and attaching emotional value to memory
associated with the integration of sensory information with emotional significance
is a term often used in reference to a specific part of the brain called the amygdala.
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central nucleus
part of the brain involved in attention
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Hippocampus
structure in the temporal lobe associated with learning and memory
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Individuals suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder have been shown to have reduced volumes of the ________
hippocampus
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cultural display rule
one of a collection of culturally specific standards that govern the types and frequencies of displays of emotions that are acceptable
The cultural specific rules that govern which facial expressions are appropriate in a given situation and how intensely they should be exhibited
ex:it is appropriate to cry and show negative emotions at a funeral while at a wedding negative and sad emotions should be masked or suppressed
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independent self
-A model or view of the self as distinct from others and as stable across different situations.
-The goal of the independent self is to express and assert the self, and to influence others.
-This model of self is prevalent in many individualistic, Western contexts (e.g., the United States, Australia, Western Europe).
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interdependent self
The goal of the interdependent self is to suppress personal preferences and desires, and to adjust to others.
a person who acts differently in different social environments or a person who hides his inner feelings to adapt to the surrounding people
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Eustress
good form of stress;
low to moderate in intensity;
associated with positive feelings, as well as optimal health and performance
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secondary appraisal
judgment of options available to cope with a stressor and their potential effectiveness
refers to the analysis of one’s available resources to overcome a potentially stressful situation.
Stressors---> Primary Appraisal---> Secondary Appraisal---> Stress---> Coping---> Reappraisal
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stressors
a situation or event that causes us to feel stressed
environmental events that may be judged as threatening or demanding; stimuli that initiate the stress process
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primary appraisal
judgment about the degree of potential harm or threat to well-being that a stressor might entail
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distress
bad form of stress;
usually high in intensity;
often leads to exhaustion, fatigue, feeling burned out; associated with erosions in performance and health
106
fight-or-flight response
an automatic physiological reaction to an event that is perceived as stressful or frightening.
set of physiological reactions (increases in blood pressure, heart rate, respiration rate, and sweat) that occur when an individual encounters a perceived threat; these reactions are produced by activation of the sympathetic nervous system and the endocrine system
107
alarm reaction
the initial symptoms the body experiences when under stress
first stage of the general adaptation syndrome;
characterized as the body’s immediate physiological reaction to a threatening situation (STRESSOR)
stages of the general adaptation syndrome:
(changes your body goes through during stress)
-alarm reaction
-resistence
- exhaustion
108
general adaptation syndrome
Hans Selye’s three-stage model of the body’s physiological reactions to stress and the process of stress adaptation:
alarm reaction, stage of resistance, and stage of exhaustion
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stage of exhaustion
third stage of the general adaptation syndrome; the body’s ability to resist stress becomes depleted; illness, disease, and even death may occur
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stage of resistance
second stage of the general adaptation syndrome; the body adapts to a stressor for a period of time
111
The ________ make up the HPA axis which is involved in the body’s physiological stress response.
The hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis (HPA axis or HTPA axis)
hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and adrenal glands
112
During an encounter judged as stressful, cortisol is released by the ________.
adrenal glands
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hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA)
set of structures found in both the limbic system (hypothalamus) and the endocrine system (pituitary gland and adrenal glands)
regulate many of the body’s physiological reactions to stress through the release of hormones
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cortisol
stress hormone released by the adrenal glands when encountering a stressor; helps to provide a boost of energy, thereby preparing the individual to take action
115
What is one of the major criticisms of the Social Readjustment Rating Scale?
It does not take into consideration how a person appraises an event.
failure to account for individual differences in how people appraise and cope with stressors, neglecting the subjective nature of stress experiences.
SRRS: designed to measure the amount of stress a person experiences over a specific period based on major life events. The scale assigns a numerical value to various life events, and individuals can calculate their stress level by adding up the values associated with events they have experienced in a given time frame.
116
According to the Holmes and Rahe scale, which life event requires the greatest amount of readjustment?
Death of spouse
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Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS)
popular scale designed to measure stress; consists of 43 potentially stressful events, each of which has a numerical value quantifying how much readjustment is associated with the event
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Daily hassles
minor irritations and annoyances that are part of our everyday lives and are capable of producing stress
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Job strain
Job strain arises when employees confront high job demands coupled with low control, resulting in heightened stress, reduced job satisfaction, and potential health implications.
120
job burnout
general sense of emotional exhaustion and cynicism in relation to one’s job;
consists of three dimensions:
exhaustion, depersonalization, and sense of diminished personal accomplishment
121
The concept of learned helplessness was formulated by Seligman to explain the ________.
inability of dogs to attempt to escape avoidable shocks after having received inescapable shocks
122
social support
soothing and often beneficial support of others; can take different forms, such as advice, guidance, encouragement, acceptance, emotional comfort, and tangible assistance
ex:
Listening without judgment.
Acknowledging and validating someone's emotions.
Providing words of comfort and reassurance.
Being physically present with someone.
Offering physical contact such as hugs.
Checking in with someone to show that you care.
123
Perceived Control
peoples’ beliefs concerning their capacity to influence and shape outcomes in their lives
ex:a person that percives studying alot= good grades
124
How does positive affect differ from optimism?
Positive affect involves feeling states(emotions and moods), whereas optimism involves positive expectation about future outcomes
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Carson enjoys writing mystery novels, and has even managed to publish some of his work. When he’s writing, Carson becomes extremely focused on his work; in fact, he becomes so absorbed that that he often loses track of time, often staying up well past 3 a.m. Carson’s experience best illustrates the concept of ________.
flow
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optimism
tendency toward a positive outlook and positive expectations
127
positive affect
state or a trait that involves pleasurable engagement with the environment, the dimensions of which include happiness, joy, enthusiasm, alertness, and excitementpositpos
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Flow
state involving intense engagement in an activity; usually is experienced when participating in creative, work, and leisure endeavors
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Classical conditioning
a form of associative learning in psychology wherein a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus, leading to a learned response to the previously neutral stimulus
In Pavlov's classic experiment, a dog learned to associate the sound of a bell (neutral stimulus) with the presentation of food (unconditioned stimulus), eventually eliciting a salivary response to the bell alone.
