Psych Final Flashcards
(282 cards)
1
Q
What does the term psychology mean?
A
The scientific study of the mind and behavior
2
Q
What makes psychology a science?
A
- Psychology is a social science.
- No biological organism exists in isolation, and our behavior is influenced by our interactions w others
3
Q
Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)
A
- German scientist who was the first psychologist
- Viewed psych as a scientific study of conscious experience.
- Believed that the goal was to identify components of consciousness and how those components combined to result in our conscious experience.
- Used introspection (“internal perception”)
4
Q
Introspection (“Internal Perception”)
A
- Used by Wundt
- A process by which someone examines their own conscious experience, making the human mind like any other aspect of nature that a scientist observed.
- Requirements for introspection:
- The use of “trained” or practiced observers, who could immediately observe & report a reaction
- The use of the repeatable stimuli that always produced the same experience in the subject and allowed the subject to expect & thus be fully attentive to the inner reaction.
- These requirements were used to eliminate “interpretation”
5
Q
Structuralism
A
- An attempt to understand the structure or characteristics of the mind. (Focused on individual parts of the mind)
- Created the first lab at the University at Leipzig.
- Founded by Wilhelm Wundt and mainly identified with Edward Titchener
6
Q
William James and Functionalism(1842-1910)
A
- The first American psychologist
- Used Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection & accepted it as an explanation of an organisms characteristics.
- The idea that natural selection leads to organisms that are adapted to their environment, including their behavior.
- James believed psych’s purpose was to study the function of behavior in the world, and as such, his perspective was known as functionalism.
7
Q
Functionalism
A
- William James
- Focused on how mental activities helped an organism fit into its env.
- Functionalists were more interested in the operation of the whole mind.
- Believed that introspection could serve as one means to study mental activity.
* *James relied more on objective measures, including the use of various recording devices, and examinations of concrete products of mental activities & of anatomy and physiology.
8
Q
Freud & Psychoanalytic Theory
A
- Fascinated by patients suffering from hysteria and neurosis
- Theorized that his patients problems came from the unconscious mind.
- Believed the unconscious mind was a repository of feelings and urges of which we had no awareness
- Freud believed the unconscious mind could be accessed through dream analysis, by examinations of the first words that came to peoples minds, and thru innocent slips of the tongue.
9
Q
Psychoanalytic Theory
A
- Sigmund Freud
- Focuses on the role of a persons unconscious, as well as early childhood expereinces
- The method of psychoanalysis, which involves the patient talking about their experiences and selves was popularized by Freud.
- Drew Westen argues that many of the criticisms of Freuds ideas are misplaced
10
Q
Drew Westen
A
- Drew Westen argues that many of the criticisms of Freuds ideas are misplaced
- Westen argues that critics fail to consider the success of the broad ideas Freud introduced such as
- The importance of childhood experiences in adult motivations
- The role of conscious vs. unconscious motivations in driving our behavior
- Motivations can cause conflicts that affect behavior
- The effects of mental representations of ourselves and others in guiding our interactions.
- The development of personality overtime
11
Q
Wertheimer, Koffka, Kohler & Gestalt Psych
A
A major emphasis of Gestalt psych deals with the fact that although a sensory experience can be broken down into individual parts, how those parts relate to each other as a whole is often what the individual responds to in perception.
- This perspective would have directly contradicted Wundt’s idea of structuralism.
- Considering the human as whole rather than as a sum of individually measured parts became an important foundation in humanistic theory.
12
Q
Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, and Behaviorism
A
- Early work in the field done by Ivan Pavlov
- Pavlov studied a form of learning behavior called a conditioned reflex.
13
Q
Conditioned Reflex (Pavlov)
A
- An animal or human produced a reflex (unconscious) response to a stimulus and over time, was conditioned to produce the response to a different stimulus that the experimenter associated with the original stimulus.
- The reflex Pavlov worked with was salivation in response to the presence of food.
- Pavlov’s “classical conditioning” is only one form of learning behavior studied by behaviorists.
14
Q
John B. Watson
A
- Father of Behaviorism
- Believed the study of consciousness was flawed
- Watson was a major proponent of shifting the focus of psychology from the mind to behavior, and this approach of observing and controlling behavior came to be known as behaviorism.
- Focused on learned behavior & its interactions with inborn qualities of the organism
- Behaviorists used animals in experiments(could relate findings back to us)
15
Q
B.F Skinner (Behaviorist)
A
- Concentrated on how behavior was affected by its consequences
- Spoke of reinforcement & punishment as major factors in driving behavior
- Developed a chamber known as an operant conditioning chamber (or skinners box)
16
Q
Humanism
A
- A perspective within psych. that emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all humans.
- Maslow & Rogers
17
Q
Abraham Maslow & Humanism
A
- Proposed a hierarchy of human needs in motivating behavior
- Maslow said so long as basic needs for survival are met (e.g food, shelter, etc), higher level needs (social needs) would begin to motivate behavior.
- The highest level needs relates to self actualization, a process by which we achieve our full potential .
- The focus on the (+) aspects of human nature that are characteristic of the humanistic perspective is evident
18
Q
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
A
Refer to notes
19
Q
Carl Rogers & Humanism
A
-Emphasized the potential for good that exists within all people
-Used technique.. Client-Centered Therapy
-Rogers believed that a therapist needed to display 3 features to maximize the effectiveness of the
approach :
*Unconditional Positive Regard
*Genuineness
*Empathy
20
Q
Client Centered Therapy ( Rogers)
A
- Carl Rogers
- Involves the patient taking a lead role in the therapy sesh.
21
Q
Unconditional Positive Regard (Rogers)
A
- Carl Rogers
- Refers to the fact that the therapist accepts their client for who they are, no matter what they say.
22
Q
Multicultural Pysch
A
-Studying of any one racial group could not be extended to the other groups, & yet potential causes of the differences were not measured.
-1920. CECIL SUMNER was the first A.A to receive a phD in psych in US.
Most of the work done by A.A psychologists was dedicated to testing and intelligence testing
-2 famous A.A psychologist (Mamie Clark and Kenneth Clark). Best known for their studies conducted on A.A children & internalized racism, research that was critical for the Brown v Board of education case. Clarks opened the first child guidance center in Harlem.
23
Q
Biopsychology
A
- Explores how our biology influences our behavior. Want to understand how the structure & function of the nervous system is related to our psychology.
- Focuses on the immediate causes of behavior based in the physiology of a human or other animal.
- A component of neuroscience
- Some research interests include: sensory and motor systems, sleep, drug use and abuse, ingestive behavior etc.
24
Q
Evolutionary Psych
A
- Seeks to study the ultimate biological causes of behavior.
- The study of behavior in the context of evolution has its origins with Charles Darwin. He was well aware that behaviors should be adaptive to physical and social environments.
- To be subject to evolution by natural selection, a behavior must have a significant genetic cause.
- We expect all human cultures to express a behavior if it is caused genetically, since the genetic differences among human groups are small.
25
Approach to Evolutionary Psych
- To predict the outcome of a behavior in a particular situation based on evolutionary theory & then to observe/conduct experiments, to determine whether the results match the theory. (These studies not strong evidence that a behavior is adaptive)
- Some evolutionary psych, are content to assume the behaviors they study have genetic determinants
26
A drawback of evolutionary psych
-The traits we possess now , evolved under environmental & social conditions far back in human history, & we have a poor understanding of what these conditions were.
27
Sensation & Perception
- Scientists interested in both physiological aspects of sensory systems as well as in the psychological experience of sensory info work within the area of sensation and perception.
- Our experience (or perception) is complex & is influenced by where we focus our attention, our previous experiences,,, & even our cultural backgrounds
28
Cognitive Psych
- Is the area of pysch that focuses on studying cognitions, or thoughts, & their relationship to our experiences & our actions
- Like biological psych, it involves collabs w/ people from a diverse range of disciplinary backgrounds
- Cognitive Science. Research interests range from attention to problem solving to language to memory.
29
Developmental psych
The scientific study of development across a lifespan. Interested in processes related to physical maturation, changes in cognitive skills, moral reasoning, social behavior, & other ... psychological attributes
-Jean Piaget demonstrated that very young kids do not exhibit object permanence
30
Object Permanence
- Jean Piaget
| - Refers to the understanding that physcial objects continue to exist even if they are hidden from us.
31
Personality Psych
- Focuses on patterns of thoughts & behaviors that make each person unique. Freud, Maslow, Gordon Allport all contributed to early theories.
- Freud proposed that personality arose as conflicts between the conscious & unconscious parts of the mind that were carried out over the lifespan. Theorized that a person went through various psychosexual stages of development
- Research is focused on identifying personality traits, measuring these traits, and determining how these traits interact in a particular context to determine how a person will behave in any situation
- Personality traits are relatively consistent patterns of thought and behavior
- Five trait dimensions are known as the "Big 5" or the "Five factor model". This captures variations in personality
32
Social Psych
- Focuses on how we interact w/ and relate to others
- Conduct research on: *differences in how we explain our own behavior v.s how we explain the behaviors of others, prejudice, attractions, & how we resolve interpersonal conflicts
- Sought to determine how being among other people changes our own behavior &patterns of thinking.
- Stanley Milgram (Held the most controversial experiment)
33
Stanley Milgram
- Social Psychologist
- Held the most controversial experiment ever
- During the time when Nazi was criminal was on trial. Nazi said he did those things because he was obeying orders.
- Milgram tested this theory and found that 2/3 of participants were willing to deliver what they believed to be lethal shock, b/c an authority figure said so
- Milgram's & others studies that involved deception & potential emotional harm to study participants catalyzed the development of ethical guidelines for conducting research.
34
Health Psych
- Focuses on how health is affected by the interaction of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors, known as biopsychosocial model.
- Interested in helping ppl achieve better health thru public policy, education, intervention, & research
- Conducts research on relationship btwn one's genetic makeup, patterns of behavior, relationships, psychological stress, health
35
Sport and Exercise Psych
- Study of the psychological aspects of sport performance, including motivation & performance anxiety, & the effects of sports on mental and emotional wellbeing
- Includes interactions btwn mental and physical performance under demanding conditions, such as firefighters, surgery, etc
36
Clinical Psych
- Focuses on the diagnoses & treatment of psychological disorders & other problematic behaviors
- Counseling Psych
- Freud & Rogers: very influential in how clinicians interact w/ ppl seeking psychotherapy. Roger's ideas about client-centered therapy is very influential
- Both behaviorism & the cognitive revolution have shaped clinical practice in the forms of behavioral therapy, cognitive therapy, cognitive-behavioral therapy
37
Alfred Binet
- Reliable intelligence testing began in 1900s with a researcher named Alfred Binet. Binet was asked by the French government to develop an intelligence test to use on children to determine which ones might have difficulty in school; it included many verbally based tasks.
- Standardization means that the manner of administration, scoring, and interpretation of results is consistent.
- Norming involves giving a test to a large population so data can be collected comparing groups, such as age groups. The resulting data provide norms, or referential scores, by which to interpret future scores. This new version of the test was called the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
38
IQ Tests
-Describes a score earned on a test designed to measure intelligence. IQ tests have sometimes been used as arguments in support of insidious purposes, such as the eugenics movement. The infamous Supreme Court Case, Buck v. Bell, legalized the forced sterilization of some people deemed “feeble-minded” through this type of testing, resulting in about 65,000 sterilizations.
39
Different Types of Research Methods
- Case Study
- Survey
- Naturalistic Observation
- Laboratory Observation
- Psychological Tests
- Experiment
40
Experimental
- Only thing that can prove cause and effect!
- Only research method that requires random assignment
- Where researchers manipulate on or more factors (independent varible) to study its effect.
- Allows for claims of causality
41
Correlational
- Means that there is a relationship btwn 2 or more variables, but this relationship DOES NOT necessarily imply cause+ effect.
- Correlation coeffienct is a # from -1 to +1 that indicates the strength & direction of the relationship btwn variables. Usually represented by the letter r.
- The # portion of the c.c indicates the strength of the relationship
* the closer the # is to +1 or -1, the more strongly related the variables are & the more predictable changes in 1 variable will be as the other variables
(+1 highest direct relationship (increase of one = increase of other)
(-1 highest inverse relationship)
* The closer the # is to 0, weaker relationship, less predictable
* 0=variables not related at all
42
Case Study
- Focus on 1 person or a few individuals.
- Can gain tremendous amount of insight, richness of info collected is unmatched.
- This approach is used when studying ppl who are interesting to researchers b/c they have a rare characteristic.
- Difficult to generalize any observations to the larger population as a whole.
43
Naturalistic Observation
- Observing behavior in its natural setting
- Want researchers to be inconspicuous
- Not just limited to humans, Jane Goodall studied chimps for 50 years in Africa.
- Greatest benefit of naturalistic observation is the validity, or accuracy.
- Major downside: often difficult to set up and control
- Sometimes studies involve structured observation, ppl are observed while engaged in set, specific tasks.
* Strange Situation by Mary Ainsworth
44
Random Assignment
The procedure of assigning participants to the experimental and control conditions by chance to minimize preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups
45
Operational Definitions
-A description of how we will measure our variables, it is important in allowing others to understand exactly how & what a researcher measures in a particular experiment
-How you define the independent and dependent variables
better the definition, easier to replicate
46
Independent Variable
-Manipulated or controlled by the experimenter. The only important difference between the experimental and the control groups.
47
Dependent Variable
-What the researcher measures to see how much effect the independent variable had. In our example, the dependent variable is the # of violent acts displayed by the experimental participants
48
Placebo Effect
Occurs when ppls expectations or beliefs influence or determine their experience in a given situation. Simply expecting something to happen, can make it happen.
49
Single Blind Study
-One of the groups (participants) are unaware as to which group they are in (experiment or control) while the researcher who developed the experiment knows. Makes the results less likely to be biased
50
Double Blind Study
Both the researchers & participants are blind to group assingments. Can control for both experimenter and participant expectations.
-Avoids placebo effect
51
Informed Consent
Participants must sign this form. Provides a written description of what participants can expect during the experiment, including potential risks and implications.
52
IRB
Any research institution that receives federal support for research involving human participants must have access to an institutional review board (IRB)
53
Debriefing
In cases where deception is involved, participants must recieve a full debriefing upon conclusion of the study-complete honest info, why they used deception
54
Deception
Involves purposely misleading experiment participants in order to maintain the integrity of the experiment, but not to the point where the deception could be considered harmful
55
Animal Research
- Rodents and birds are often used
- 90% of all animal research in psych use these species
- Institutional Animal Care & Use Comittee (IACUC)
56
Darwin's Theory
-Theory of evolution by natural selection.
* Organisms that are better suited for their env. will survive & reproduce, while those that are poorly suited for their env will die off.
Some adaptations that have been beneficial:
*fear response, *food preference, * mate selection, *cooperative behaviors
57
Central Nervous System
-Comprised of the brain & spinal cord
58
Peripheral N.S
- PNS connects CNS to the rest of the body. Has 2 major subdivisions: The Somatic Nervous System and the Autonomic Nervous System
- -all nerves not encased in bone/outside brain and spinal cord
59
Somatic N.S
Associated with activities traditionally thought of as conscious or voluntary. Involved in the relay of sensory & motor info to & from the CNS.
60
Motor Neurons
Carrying instructions from the CNS to the muscles. Are efferent fibers (efferent means "moving away from")
61
Sensory Neurons
Neurons that carry incoming information from sensory receptors (sensory organs) to Central Nervous System. Are afferent fibers (afferent means "moving towards")
62
Sympathetic Nervous System
- Involved in preparing the body for stress related activites.
- Fight or flight
63
Parasympathetic Nervous System
- Rest and digest
| - Associated w/ returning the body to routine, day to day operations
64
Autonomic N.S
-Controls our internal organs and glands and is generally considered to be outside the realm of voluntary control. Can be divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic.
65
Reflexes
Automatic responses to stimuli illustrate work of spinal cord. No input from the brain.
ex: knee jerk response, withdrawal from heat.
Withdrawal Reflex
66
Soma
The nucleus of the neuron is located in the soma.
67
Dendrite
The soma has branching extensions known as dendrites.
- They serve as input sites where signals are recieved from other neurons.
- Conducts impulses towards cell body
68
Axon
Signals from the dendrites are transmitted electrically across the soma and down the axon, which ends in the terminal bouton
-Extension of a neuron that sends information to other neurons, muscles, or glands
69
Terminal Bouton
-Contain synaptic vesicles that house neurotransmitters, the chemical messengers of the nervous system.
70
Why do some neurons have Myelin Sheath?
- layer of fatty cells that insulate the axon
- helps speed neuron's impulses ( increases speed at which signal travels)
- breakdown of myelin sheath = multiple sclerosis
71
Sequence of reactions that occur when neural impulse is generated and transmitted
- 1) electrical impulses (action potentials) travel down a neuron's axon until reaching synapse
2) when reaching axon terminal, it stimulates the release of neurotransmitters, which cross the synaptic gap and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron. This allows ions to enter the receiving neuron and excite or inhibit a new impulse
3) reuptake
72
Reuptake
- Once the signal is delivered, excess neurotransmitters in the synapse drift away, are broken down into inactive fragments, or are reabsorbed in a process known as reuptake.
* *Purpose is to clear synapse
73
Brain Stem
The medulla, pons, midbrain
- - "oldest" part of the brain
- life functions = keep you alive
- includes pons, medulla, cerebellum, and reticular formation
- innermost brain region
74
Mid Brain
- Comprised of structures located deep within the brain, between the forebrain, & the hindbrain
- The reticular formation is centered in the midbrain. Regulates the sleep/wake cycle arousal, alertness, &motor activity.
- The substania nigra ("black substance") & the ventral tegmental area (VTA) are also located in the midbrain.
* Both regions contain cell bodies that produce the neurotransmitter dopamine, & both are critical for movement
* *Degeneration of the substania nirgra & VTA is involved in Parkinsons disease
* **These structures invovled in mood, reward, & addiction
75
Cerebrum
- 4 lobes:
* Frontal
* Parietal
* Temporal
* Occipital
76
Medulla
- automatic life functions
- autonomic nervous system
- heart-rate and breathing and blood pressure
- extension of spinal cord
- at the base of the brainstem
77
Frontal Lobes
Control motor responses, and higher mental functions, such as thinking, planning, problem solving, decision making, and accessing & acting on stored memories.
78
Parietal Lobes
Process info relating to sensations of touch, pressure, temp, pain, and body movement
79
Temporal Lobes
Process auditory info, giving rise to sensations of sound.
| -Audituory cortex located in here
80
Occipital Lobe
Process visual info, giving rise to sensations of vision
| -Contains primary visual cortex
81
How do we observe & measure the brain?
- Lesioning
- EEG
- MRI
- CT/CAT scan
- PET Scan
82
Phineas Gage and "Tan"
Gage: An iron rod into his face thru his skull, was able to get up, walk, speak, was conscious
- Behavior changes-> began to behave in odd and inappropriate ways
- The rod damaged the limbic system (emotional processes)
- Therefore, had trouble controlling emotional impulses
83
Sleep
A state marked by relatively low levels of physical activity and reduced sensory awareness that is distinct from periods of rest that occur during wakefulness.
84
Why do we sleep?
- An evolutionary hypothesis of sleep holds that our sleep patterns evolved as an adaptive response to predatory risks, which increases in darkness.
- Important for cognitive function & memory formation
- Some benefits include creative thinking, language learning, & inferential judgements
85
Rapid Eye Movement (REM)
Sleep is characterized by darting movements of the eyes under closed eyelids. Brain waves during REM sleep appear very similar to brain waves during wakefulness. Final stage of sleep
- Dreaming occurs
- Associated w/ paralysis of muscle systems in the body
* referred to as paradoxical sleep b/c of this combo of high brain activity & lack of muscle tone
- involved in emotional processing & regulation
- REM Rebound
86
Non-REM (NREM)
Is subdivided into 4 stages distinguished from each other & from wakefulness by characteristic patterns of brain waves.
-Stage 1- Alpha waves (low frequency, high amplitude)
Stage 2:Theta waves. Interupted by sleep spindles (rapid bursts of higher frequency brain activity that may in some cases occur in response to environmental stimuli)
Stage 3 and 4: Low frequency, high amplitude delta waves. Deep sleep or slow wave sleep
87
Learning
- A relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience.
- Involves a complex interaction of consciouss & unconscious processes
88
Learning
- A relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience.
- Involves a complex interaction of consciouss & unconscious processes
89
Behaviorist believe in studying events that are what?
- Behavioral psychology, is a theory of learning based on the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning.
- Believe that our responses to environmental stimuli shape our actions.
90
Classical Conditioning
- ivan Pavlov (Dogs digestive system and salivation)
| - Organisms learn to associate events or stimuli that repeatedly happen tg
91
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
a stimulus that elicits a reflexive response in an organism
92
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
a natural reaction to a given stimulus
93
Neutral Stimulus (NS)
A stimulus that does not naturally elicit a response, presented before an unconditioned stimulus.
```
BEFORE CONDITIONING:
meat powder(UCS)-> salivation(UCR)
```
AFTER:
tone(NS)+meat powder (UCS)->salivation (UCR)
**the neutral stimulus became the conditioned stimulus (CS)
tone(CS)->salivation(CR)
94
Extinction
- Is the decrease in the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer presented w/ the conditioned stimulus
* there is gradual weakening & disappearance of the conditioned response
95
Stimulus Generalization
When an organism demonstrates the conditioned response to stimuli that are similiar to the condition stimulus.
**The more similiar a stimulus is to the conditioned stimulus, the more likely the organism is to give the conditioned response (opp of discrimination)
96
Stimulus discrimination
When an organism learns to respond differently to various stimuli that are similiar.
* *The organism demonstartes the conditioned response only to the conditioned stimulus
ex: Pavlovs dogs differentiated the tone bell to the door bell, b/c the other sounds did not predict the arrival of food
97
John B Watson
– Father of American Behaviorism – studied classical conditioning of emotions
-Used pavlov's method w/ little albert by instilling fear into him thru the use of a cute rat &LOUD banging noise
98
Operant Conditioning
- is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior.
- BF. Skinner
99
Operant Conditioning
-The target behavior is followed by reinforcement or punishment to either strengthen or weaken it, so that the learner is more likely to exhibit the desired behavior in the future.
B.F SKinner (skinners box)
100
Positive reinforcement
A desirable stimulus is added to increase a behavior
101
Negative reinforcement
An undesirable stimulus is removed to increase behavior
| ex: when u dont buckle up, the car beeps od until u fasten ur seatbelt.
102
Positive/presentation Punishment
Adding something to decrease the likelihood of an event happening again. Ex. Extra homework for cutting class
103
Negative/removal punishment
You remove a pleasant stimulus to decrease behavior.
| EX. when a child misbehaves, a parent can take away toy. Prison. Time out
104
Shaping
- Reward successive approximations of a target behavior
- Needed b/c it is extremely unlikely that an organism will display anything but the simplest of behaviors spontaneously.
- Uses stimulus discrimination
105
Fixed
The # of responses btwn reinforcements, or the set amount of time btwn reinforcements, which is set & unchanging
106
Variable
The # of responses or amount fo time btwn reinforcements which varies or changes
107
Interval
The schedule is based on the time btwn reinforcements
108
Ratio
The schedule is based on the # of responses btwn reinforcements
109
Fixed interval reinforcement schedule
When behavior is rewarded after a set amount of time
110
Variable interval reinforcement schedule
The person or animal gets the reinforcement based on varying amounts of time, which are unpredictable
111
Fixed ratio reinforcement schedule
there are a set # responses that must occur before the behavior is rewarded
-Fixed ratios are better suited to optimize the quantity of output, whereas, a fixed interval, in which the reward is not quantity based, can lead to higher quality of output
112
Variable ratio reinforcement schedule
the # of responses needed for a reward varies. Most powerful partial reinforcement schedule
EX. gambling
Most productive and most resistant to extinction
113
Social Learning Theory
- Albert Bandura
- Branch of behaviorism, that took cognitive processes into account
- Felt that internal mental states must play a role in learning & that observational learning involves much more than imitation.
- Identified 3 models:
* Live Model
* Verbal Instructional Model
* Symbolic Model
114
Live Model
- Social Learning Theory ( Bandura)
| - demonstrates a behavior in person
115
Verbal Instructional Model
- Social Learning Theory(Bandura)
| - does not perform the behavior, but instead explains or describes the behavior.
116
Symbolic Model
- Social Learning Theory(Bandura)
| - Can be fictional characters or real ppl who demonstrate behaviors in books, movies, tv, etc
117
Perception
```
Processes that organize information in sensory image & interpret it as produced by properties of objects or events in external, 3 dimensional world.
Perception Process:
1. Sensation
2. Perceptual Organization
3. Identification & recognition
```
118
Sensation
Process by which stimulation of sensory receptor gives rise to neural impulses that result in experience, or awareness of, conditions inside or outside the body. (recognize stimuli)
119
Perceptual Orgaization
Processes that put sensory info tg to give perception of coherent scene over whole visual field (i.e sound, touch, smell)
120
Perceptual Orgaization
Processes that put sensory info tg to give perception of coherent scene over whole visual field (i.e sound, touch, smell)
121
Identification & Recognition
- Processes of assigning meaning to percepts
| - Involves higher level cognitive processes
122
Information Processing Stages
- Processes of taking info from the env to short term memory (cognitive consciousness)
- 5 stages. Sensory store, filter, pattern recog, selection, short term memory
123
Sensory store
- Part of Information Processing Stages
| - a momentary recognition of all the info that we can percieve or sense
124
filter
- Part of Information Processing Stages
| - Will block out info that irrelevant
125
Pattern Recog.
- Part of Information Processing Stages
| - Some stimuli are more impt that others based on how they fit the patterns of someone's life
126
Selection
- Part of Information Processing Stages
| - Selecting stimuli from the sensory store in order to put it to short term memory.
127
Short term memory
- -Part of Information Processing Stages
| - Getting info so you can analyze it
128
Attention
State of focused awareness on a subject of available perceptual info w/in a larger scope
129
Bottle Neck Theories
A theory that attempts to explain how ppl select info when some info processing stage becomes overloaded w/ too much info. Filter exists to push out the extraneous info & only allow info we deem as impt. to get thru
130
Bottleneck Theory: Broadbent's Filter Model
- Bottleneck appears at pattern recog. stage and attention determine what info reaches Pattern recognition stage.
- Allows for least amount of info in
- Limited capacity perceptual channel
131
Bottleneck Thoery: Treisman
- Cocktail Part effect: Certain words have a lower threshold which take less to make us conscious of that stimuli
- -Contextual Effects: the influence of the surrounding context on the recognition of patterns
- Threshold: The minimal amount of activation required to become consciously aware of a stimuli (fire= low threshold)
- Attenuation: A decrease in the perceived loudness of an unattended message
132
Bottleneck Theory: Duetsch and Norman – Selection Stage (Latest)
- Info relevant for task response gets into conscious awareness
- Proposal that the bottleneck occurs when info is selected for memory
- this model allows for more info to be consciously considered
- (most info allowed)
133
Capacity Theory: Automatic Processing
-Performing mental operations that require very little mental effort
EX driving
134
Memory flow chart
Sensory Store ->Short Term (STM)/Working Memory (WM) ->Long Term Memory (LTM)
135
Encoding
The input of info into the memory system. 2 subdivions: automatic& effortful processing
136
Automatic Processing
- Encoding
- The encoding of details like time, space, frequency & the meaning of words.
- Usually done w/o consciouss awareness.
137
Effortful Processing
- Encoding
- Requires alot of work & attention to encode info.
ex. test material you studied
138
3 types of encoding
Semantic encoding
Visual encoding
Acoustic encoding
139
Semantic encoding
The encoding of words and their meaning,
| We process verbal info the best through semantic encoding
140
Visual encoding
The encoding of images. Can recall images more easily. High imagery words are encoded both visually and semantically, thus building a stronger memory
141
Acoustic encoding
The encoding of sounds, words, in particular.
142
Storage
The creation of a permanent record of info.
-In order for a memory to go into storage (long term memory), has to pass through 3 stages : sensory memory, short term emory, and long term memory (proposed by Atkinson and Schiffrin)
143
Sensory Memory
In atkinson-schiffrin model, stimuli in env. are processed first in sensory memory: storage of brief sensory events such as sights, sounds, etc.
- very brief storage
- info we dont view as valuable, we discard
144
Short term memory
- Working memory
- temporary storage system that processes incoming sensory memory
- Take info from sensory mem and sometime connects that mem to something already in long term mem.
- George Miller: STM capacity of memory= 7 plus or minus 2
- This step of rehearsal, the conscious repition of info to be remembered, to move STM into long term mem is called memory consolidation
145
Long term memory
The continuous storage of info
- limitless storage capacity
- Have explicit memories (declarative memories) or implicit memories
146
Explicit memories/Declarative Memories
- Long term Memory
- Are those we consciously try to remember & recall
- Has to do w/ the storage of facts and events we experienced
* Semantic mem: Is knowledge about words, concepts, facts, etc
* Episodic mem: Info about events we have personally experienced, involves recollection of visual imagery as well as the feeling of familiarity
EX. if studying for exam, material learned will be here
147
Implicit memories
- Long term Memory
- Memories that are not part of our consciousness.
- Mem formed from behaviors.
- Also called Non-Declarative mem. (Procedural skills &actions)(emotional conditioning)
148
Retrieval
The act of getting info out of the memory storage & back into conscious awareness
1. Recall: you can access info w/o cues
2. Recognition: Happens when you identify info that you have previously learned after seeing it again. Involves a process of comparison.
3. Relearning
149
Semantic memory
-Is knowledge about words, concepts, facts, etc
| Part of declarative memory
150
Episodic memory
- Info about events we have personally experienced, involves recollection of visual imagery as well as the feeling of familiarity
- Part of declarative
151
Procedural Memory
is a part of the long-term memory that is responsible for knowing how to do things, also known as motor skills. As the name implies, procedural memory stores information on how to perform certain procedures, such as walking, talking and riding a bike.
152
Flashbulb memory
An exceptionally clear recollection of an imp. event
| -When stressed, the brain secretes more of the neurotransmitter glutamate, which helps them remember the stressful event
153
Elizabeth Loftus & the misinformation paradigm
- Holds that after exposre to incorrect info, a person may misremember the original event.
- Recall of false autobiographical mem is called: False Memory Syndrome
- Ever since Loftus pusblished her studies, steps have been taken to decrease suggestibility of witnesses.
* One way is to modify how witnesses are questioned
* Change in how police lineups are conducted
* Some states, judges can inform jurors about the possibility of misidentification
154
Interference
Sometimes info is stored in our memory, but for some reason is inaccessible
- Proactive interference
- Retroactive interference
155
Proactive Interference
When old info hinders the recall of newly learned info
156
Retroactive Interference
Happens when info learned more recently hinders the recall of older info
157
Retroactive Interference
Happens when info learned more recently hinders the recall of older info
158
Chunking
-refers to the process of taking individual pieces of information and grouping them into larger units. By grouping each data point into a larger whole, you can improve the amount of information you can remember.
159
Alfred Binet
- Created the IQ test
- Binet was asked by the French government to develop an intelligence test to use on children to determine which ones might have difficulty in school; it included many verbally based tasks.
160
Standardization
-means that the manner of administration, scoring, and interpretation of results is consistent.
161
Norming
-involves giving a test to a large population so data can be collected comparing groups, such as age groups
162
Calculate IQ
Mental age/chronological age x 100 = IQ
163
Spearman's G: Theory of Intelligence
-Believed intelligence consisted of one general factor, called g, which could be measured and compared among individuals. Spearman focused on the commonalities among various intellectual abilities and de-emphasized what made each unique.
164
Robert Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
- Views intelligence as being comprised of 3 parts:
* practical
* creative
* analytical
165
Practical Intelligence
- Part of Robert Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
- Compared to street smarts. -You find solutions that work in your everyday life by applying knowledge based on your experiences. -Separate from traditional IQ;
166
Creative Intelligence
- Part of Robert Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
- Is marked by inventing or imagining a solution to a problem or situation. EXAMPLE: Imagine for a moment that you are camping in the woods with some friends and realize that you’ve forgotten your camp coffee pot. The person in your group who figures out a way to successfully brew coffee for everyone would be credited as having higher creative intelligence.
167
Analytical Intelligence
- Part of Robert Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
- Closely aligned with academic problem solving and computations. Demonstrated by the ability to analyze, evaluate, judge, compare, and contrast.
168
Gardener's Multiple Intelligence Theory
- Developed by Howard Gardener. States that each person should at least possess eight intelligences.
- It has been suggested that Gardner simply relabeled what other theorists called “cognitive styles” as “intelligences”
169
Giftedness
intellectual giftedness is an intellectual ability significantly higher than average.
170
Intellectual Disabilites
Learning disabilities are considered specific neurological impairments rather than global intellectual or developmental disabilities
171
IQ Test and mean
- In modern IQ testing, one standard deviation is 15 points. So a score of 85 would be described as “one standard deviation below the mean.” Average IQ is 100.
- Only 2.2% of the population has an IQ score below 70 (American Psychological Association [APA], 2013). A score of 70 or below indicates significant cognitive delays.
172
Categories of Intellectual Disabilities
Dysgraphia
Dyslexia
Dyscalculia
173
Dysgraphia
-struggle to write legibly. These children often have extreme difficulty putting their thoughts down on paper. This difficulty is inconsistent with a person’s IQ.
174
Dyslexia
-inability to correctly process letters. The neurological mechanism for sound processing does not work properly in someone with dyslexia. As a result, dyslexic children may not understand sound-letter correspondence.
175
Dyscalculia
is difficulty in learning or comprehending arithmetic.
176
Developmental Psych
-They view development as a lifelong process that can be studied scientifically across three developmental domains—physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development.
177
Continuous Development
-views development as a cumulative process, gradually improving on existing skills. With this type of development, there is gradual change. Consider, for example, a child’s physical growth: adding inches to her height year by year.
178
Discontinuous Development
- development takes place in unique stages: It occurs at specific times or ages. With this type of development, the change is more sudden, such as an infant’s ability to conceive object permanence.
179
Longitudinal Stusy
is a research design that involves repeated observations of the same variables (e.g., people) over short or long periods of time
180
Longitudinal Stusy
is a research design that involves repeated observations of the same variables (e.g., people) over short or long periods of time
-a study that observes the same participants on many occasions over a long period of time
181
Chronological Age
the age of a person as measured from birth to a given date His chronological age is five, but his mental age is three—he thinks and behaves like a three-year-old.
182
Stages of physical development
Prenatal, infancy, early childhood, middle childhood, adolescence, early adulthood, middle adulthood, late adulthood
183
Pre-natal development
germinal, embryonic(3-8 weeks), and fetal(9-40)
184
Germinal Stage (Weeks 1-2):
Conception: Sperm fertilizes an egg and forms a zygote. Fewer than one half of all zygotes survive beyond the first 2 weeks.
In this stage, the mass of cells has yet to attach itself to the lining of the mothers uterus.
185
Embryonic Stage
- Placenta forms
- Implants in uterus
- Basic structures begin to develop (head, chest, abdomen)
- Heart begins to beat, organs form.
- Neural tube forms (eventually forms spinal cord and brain)
186
What reflexes do babies display immediately after birth?
All healthy babies are born with newborn reflexes: inborn automatic responses to particular forms of stimulation.
* Rooting Reflex
* Grasping Reflex
* Moro Reflex
187
Rooting reflex
the newborn’s response to anything that touches her cheek: When you stroke a baby’s cheek, she naturally turns her head in that direction and begins to suck.
188
Grasping Reflex
in which a baby automatically grasps anything that touches his palms.
189
Moro Reflex
the newborn’s response when she feels like she is falling. The baby spreads her arms, pulls them back in, and then (usually) cries.
190
Moro Reflex
the newborn’s response when she feels like she is falling. The baby spreads her arms, pulls them back in, and then (usually) cries.
191
Tetragons
is any environmental agent—biological, chemical, or physical—that causes damage to the developing embryo or fetus.
EX: alchohol, nicotine
192
Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD)
-Physically, children with FASD may have a small head size and abnormal facial features.
Cognitively, these children may have poor judgment, poor impulse control, higher rates of ADHD, learning issues, and lower IQ scores. These developmental problems and delays persist into adulthood
193
Perceptual abilites of a baby
Blurry, but can recognize
Mom’s face
-Preferences for face-like patterns
-By 1 month can visually track a moving object
-Basic color vision develops by about 2 months
-Depth perception develops by around 6 months
194
Visual Cliff
The visual cliff is a test given to infants to see if they have developed depth perception. The way it works is there is a platform that is covered with a cloth that is draped all over the place
195
Speech Perception of babies
Particularly sensitive to sounds within frequency of human voice
- Can discern mother’s voice from other voices
- Just hours after birth can differentiate sounds in native language from those in a foreign tongue
- By several months can discriminate between various speech sounds
196
Physical development
Once girls reach 8–9 years old, their growth rate outpaces that of boys due to a pubertal growth spurt. This growth spurt continues until around 12 years old, coinciding with the start of the menstrual cycle.
197
Physical development
- Between the ages of 3-6 the frontal lobes develop rapidly
- Once girls reach 8–9 years old, their growth rate outpaces that of boys due to a pubertal growth spurt. This growth spurt continues until around 12 years old, coinciding with the start of the menstrual cycle.
198
Pruning
The blooming period of neural growth is then followed by a period of pruning, where neural connections are reduced. It is thought that pruning causes the brain to function more efficiently, allowing for mastery of more complex skills
199
Pruning
The blooming period of neural growth is then followed by a period of pruning, where neural connections are reduced. It is thought that pruning causes the brain to function more efficiently, allowing for mastery of more complex skills
200
Jean Piaget
- Developed the theory of cognitive development.
- This theory holds that our cognitive abilities develop through specific stages, which exemplifies the discontinuity approach to development
201
Schema
Piaget said children develop schemata to help them understand the world.
- Mental concepts or frameworks that organize info
- When children learn new info, they adjust their schemata thru 2 processes: assimilation and accomedation
202
Assimilation (schema)
is when they take in information that is comparable to what they already know.
203
Accommodation (schema)
describes when they change their schemata based on new information.
204
Piaget and Stage Thoery
He proposed a theory of cognitive development that unfolds in four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational
205
Sensory Motor stage (0-2)
- World experienced through senses and actions.
- Where kid develops object permanence
- Stranger anxiety
206
Object Permanance
the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived/seen
207
PreOperational Stage
- Cannot perform mental operations b/c have not developed an understand of conservation.
- Display egocentricsm
208
Conservation
the idea that even if you change the appearance of something, it is still equal in size as long as nothing has been removed or added.
209
Egocentrism
the child is not able to take the perspective of others. An egocentric child is not able to infer the perspective of other people and instead attributes his own perspective
210
Concrete Operations Stage
- Can think logically about concrete events
- they have a firm grasp on the use of numbers and start to employ memory strategies.
- They can perform mathematical operations and understand transformations, concept of conservation
- Understand reversibility
211
Reversibility
objects can be changed and then returned back to their original form or condition.
212
Formal Operations Stage
- can also deal with abstract ideas and hypothetical situations. Children in this stage can use abstract thinking to problem solve, look at alternative solutions, and test these solutions. In adolescence, a renewed egocentrism occurs.
- Moral Reasoning
213
Social Cognition
Lev Vygotsky's Cognitive Development Theory postulates that social interaction is fundamental to cognitive development. Vygotsky's theory is comprised of concepts such as culture-specific tools, language and thought interdependence, and the Zone of Proximal Development.
214
Zone of Proximal Development
Vygotsky (1978) sees the Zone of Proximal Development as the area where the most sensitive instruction or guidance should be given - allowing the child to develop skills they will then use on their own - developing higher mental functions.
215
Erik Erikson
-Eight Stage Model
-Proposed a psychosocial theory of development, suggesting that an individual’s personality develops throughout the lifespan—a departure from Freud’s view that personality is fixed in early life.
Refer to notes for diagram
216
Temperament
refers to innate traits that influence how one thinks, behaves, and reacts with the environment.
217
Temperament-easy
Children with easy temperaments demonstrate positive emotions, adapt well to change, and are capable of regulating their emotions.
218
Temperament-difficult
children with difficult temperaments demonstrate negative emotions and have difficulty adapting to change and regulating their emotions.
219
Love and Deprivation
Harry Harlow, John Bowlby, and Mary Ainsworth conducted studies where they separated a monkey and her newborn babies. Used two experimental groups: monkey made of wire mesh that dispensed milk and the other a soft, cuddly cloth that did not dispense milk. Found that even though the soft, cuddly cloth did not dispense milk, the monkeys still went to it and preferred it.
However, Harlow (1958) concluded that there was more to the mother-child bond than nourishment. Feelings of comfort and security are the critical components to maternal-infant bonding, which leads to healthy psychosocial development.
220
Attachment Theory
While Bowlby thought attachment was an all-or-nothing process, Mary Ainsworth’s (1970) research showed otherwise.
-Ainsworth identified 3 type of parent child attatchements using a "strange situation": secured, avoidant, resistant, (a fourth one was later added - disorganized attachment)
221
Secured Attatchment
most healthy. The attachment figure is used as a secure base to explore the environment and is sought out in times of stress.
222
Avoidant Attatchment
the child is unresponsive to the parent, does not use the parent as a secure base, and does not care if the parent leaves. The toddler reacts to the parent the same way she reacts to a stranger. Insensitive and uncaring care giver.
223
Resistant Attatchment
children tend to show clingy behavior, but then they reject the attachment figure’s attempts to interact with them. Caregivers inconsistent level of response tochild.
224
Disorganized attatchment
They freeze, run around the room in an erratic manner, or try to run away when the caregiver returns. This type of attachment is seen most often in kids who have been abused.
225
Parenting Styles
Authoritative, Authoritarian, Indulgent, Neglecting.
| Diana Baumrind
226
Authoritative Style
the parent gives reasonable demands and consistent limits, expresses warmth and affection, and listens to the child’s point of view. Parents set rules and explain the reasons behind them. They are also flexible and willing to make exceptions to the rules in certain cases. Preferred style in American cultures.
227
Authoritarian Style
the parent places high value on conformity and obedience. The parents are often strict, tightly monitor their children, and express little warmth. In contrast to the authoritative style, authoritarian parents probably would not relax bedtime rules during a vacation because they consider the rules to be set, and they expect obedience. Can be beneficial in some cultures (First gen ChineseAmerican)
228
Permissive Style
the kids run the show and anything goes. Permissive parents make few demands and rarely use punishment. They tend to be very nurturing and loving, and may play the role of friend rather than parent.children raised by permissive parents tend to lack self-discipline, and the permissive parenting style is negatively associated with grades. The permissive style may also contribute to other risky behaviors such as alcohol abuse, risky sexual behavior especially among female children, and increased display of disruptive behaviors by male children.
229
Uninvolved Style
the parents are indifferent, uninvolved, and sometimes referred to as neglectful. They don’t respond to the child’s needs and make relatively few demands. Children raised in this parenting style are usually emotionally withdrawn, fearful, anxious, perform poorly in school, and are at an increased risk of substance abuse
230
Theory of Moral Development-Lawrence Kohlberg
- Kohlberg posed moral dilemmas to people of all ages, and then he analyzed their answers to find evidence of their particular stage of moral development.
- After Kolhberg reviewed different responses to moral dilemmas, he placed them into different stages of moral reasoning. (Heinz Dilemma)
- According to Kohlberg, an individual progresses from the capacity for pre-conventional morality (before age 9) to the capacity for conventional morality (early adolescence), and toward attaining post-conventional morality (once formal operational thought is attained), which only a few fully achieve.
- Kohlberg believed that more males than females move past stage 4 in their moral development. Felt that women seemed more deficient in their moral reasoning abilities.
231
Six stages of Moral Reasoning
Kohlberg
| refer to notes for diagram
232
Carol Gilligan
- Disagreed with Kohlberg
- criticized her former mentor’s theory because it was based only on upper class White men and boys. She argued that women are not deficient in their moral reasoning—she proposed that males and females reason differently. Girls and women focus more on staying connected and the importance of interpersonal relationships.
233
Carol Gilligan
- Disagreed with Kohlberg
- criticized her former mentor’s theory because it was based only on upper class White men and boys. She argued that women are not deficient in their moral reasoning—she proposed that males and females reason differently. Girls and women focus more on staying connected and the importance of interpersonal relationships.
234
Personality
The psychological qualities of an individual that influence a variety of characteristic behavior patterns across different situations and over time (is relatively stable)
235
Trait
Enduring personal quality or attribute that influences behavior across situations
236
Trait theorists: Gordon Allport
Organized personality traits into 3 catagories:
* Cardinal
* Central
* Secondary
- Personality traits are embedded in the brain( inherited, but influenced by experince)
237
Cardinal Trait
- Gordon Allport
- is one that dominates your entire personality, and hence your life. Cardinal traits are not very common. our personalities typically are composed of multiple traits.
238
Central Trait
Allport
| -are those that make up our personalities (such as loyal, kind, agreeable, friendly, sneaky, wild, and grouchy).
239
Secondary Trait
Allport
are those that are not quite as obvious or as consistent as central traits. They are present under specific circumstances and include preferences and attitudes.
240
Raymond Cattell
- Used 16 factors or traits to describe personality
- proposed a theory of intelligence that divided general intelligence into two components: crystallized intelligence and fluid intelligence.
*Fluid intelligence helps you tackle compex, abstract challenges in your daily life, whereas, crystallized intelligence helps you overcome concrete, straightforward problems
241
Crystallized Intelligence
Is characterized as acquired knowledge and the ability to retrieve it. When you learn, remember, and recall information, you are using crystallized intelligence.
242
Fluid Intelligence
Encompasses the ability to see complex relationships and solve problems. Navigating your way home after being detoured onto an unfamiliar route because of road construction would draw upon your fluid intelligence.
243
Hans Eysenck- 3 broad dimensions of personlity
Introversion/Extraversion
Neuroticism
Psychoticism
244
Introversion
- Solitary
- reserved
- unsociable
245
Extraversion
- Outgoing
- friendly
- people-oriented
246
Neuroticism
- High=tense, anxious, restless, moody, worrisome
| - Low=relaxed, calm, stable, even tempered
247
Psychoticism
High=cold, antisocial,hostile,insensitive
Low=warm, sensitive, concerned about others
248
Five Factor Model
| *ADD INFO
```
(BIG five) – comprehensive descriptive personality system that maps out the relationships among common traits and theoretical concepts (OCEAN)
• Openness
• Conscientiousness
• Extroversion
• Agreeableness
• Neuroticism
```
249
Traits and genetics
genetic bases for personality
250
Psychodynamic Theory
theory of personality that shares the assumption that personality is shaped by and behavior is motivated by inner forces (drives)
251
Sigmund Freud
Father of Psychodynamic theory
252
Libido
– psychic energy that drives individuals towards sensual pleasure of all types, especially sexual ones.
253
Fixation
– state in which person remains attached to objects or activities more appropriate for an earlier stage of psychosexual development
254
Freud’s psychosexual stage development
* Oral
* Anal
* Phallic
* Latency
* Genital
255
Oral
According to Freud, an adult who smokes, drinks, overeats, or bites her nails is fixated in the oral stage of her psychosexual development; she may have been weaned too early or too late, resulting in these fixation tendencies, all of which seek to ease anxiety.
256
Anal
Parents who are harsh in toilet training can cause a child to become fixated at the anal stage, leading to the development of an anal-retentive personality.
- anal retentive personlaity
- anal expulsive personlaity
257
Anal retentive Personality
is stingy and stubborn, has a compulsive need for order and neatness, and might be considered a perfectionist.
258
Anal expulsive personality
If parents are too lenient in toilet training, the child might also become fixated and display an anal-expulsive personality. The anal-expulsive personality is messy, careless, disorganized, and prone to emotional outbursts.
259
Phallic
- Ages 3-6
- Children become aware of bodily differences between girls and boys
- Erongenous zone is the genetalia
- Oedipus complex
- Castration anxiety
- The Electra Complex
- Penis Envy
260
Oedipus complex
- Phallic stage
- involving a boy's desire for his mother and his urge to replace his father who is seen as a rival for the mother’s attention.
-At the same time, the boy is afraid his father will punish him for his feelings, so he experiences castration anxiety.
261
The Electra Complex
- Proposed by Carl Jung
- A girl desires the attention of her father and wishes to take her mother’s place. Jung also said that girls are angry with the mother for not providing them with a penis—hence the term penis envy
- Freud later rejected this
262
Genital
There is a sexual reawakening as the incestuous urges resurface. The young person redirects these urges to other, more socially acceptable partners (who often resemble the other-sex parent).
263
Unconscious
domain of psyche that stores repressed urges and primitive impulses
264
Freuds structures of personality
-Id
-Ego
-Superego
Our personality develops from a conflict between two forces: our biological aggressive and pleasure-seeking drives versus our internal (socialized) control over these drives.
Our personality is the result of our efforts to balance these two competing forces.
265
Id
Based on pleasure-seeking principle, where id seeks immediate gratification
- Contains our most primitive drives and urges, present at birth
- Directs impulses for hunger, thirst, sex
- Superego and Ego develop to help control the id
266
Ego
Rational part of our personality
Considered to be the self. Part of our personality that people see
Balance the demands of the id and superego in the context of reality- “Reality Principle”
267
Superego
Acts as our consciouss
Moral compass that tells us how to behave
Strives for perfection and judges our behavior-leading to feelings of pride or guilt
268
The id and superego are in constant conflict, because the id wants instant gratification regardless of the consequences, but the superego tells us that we must behave in socially acceptable ways
Freud maintained that imbalances in the system can lead to neurosis (a tendency to experience negative emotions), anxiety disorders, or unhealthy behaviors
269
Ego defense mechanisms
– mental strategies used by ego to defend itself against conflicts
- unconscious protective behaviors that aim to reduce anxiety.
- Repression
- Rationalization
- Denial
270
Repression
If a memory is too overwhelming to deal with, it might be repressed and thus removed from conscious awareness
271
Carl Jung
-Psychodynamic Theorist
-Developed analytical pysch:
-Collective unconscious
Responsible for introvert/extrovert
-Proposed concept of persona
272
Analytical Psych
- Carl Jung
- The focus of analytical psychology is on working to balance opposing forces of conscious and unconscious thought, and experience within one’s personality.
273
Collective unconscious
-Carl Jung
Is a universal version of the personal unconscious, holding mental patterns, or memory traces, which are common to all of us
-These ancestral memories, which Jung called archetypes, are represented by universal themes in various cultures, as expressed through literature, art, and dreams
Believe that through biology, people handed down same themes
274
Alfred Adler
- First major theorist to break from Freud
- Founded the school of individual psychology
- Proposed the concept of the inferiority complex
- Focused on social motives
- He also emphasized conscious rather than unconscious motivation
- Believed that birth order contributes to our personality (not conclusively confirmed)
- Believed in the importance of social connections, seeing childhood development emerging through social development
275
Inferiority Complex
refers to a person’s feelings that they lack worth and don’t measure up to the standards of others or of society.
276
Major difference between Freud and Adler
Freud believed that we are motivated by sexual and aggressive urges, but Adler believed that feelings of inferiority in childhood are what drive people to attempt to gain superiority and that this striving is the force behind all of our thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.
277
Alfred Adler identified 3 social tasks
*occupational tasks (careers), *societal tasks (friendship), and *love tasks (finding an intimate partner for a long-term relationship).
278
Karen Horney
-Disagreed w/ Freud
-Believed men had womb envy
-Stated that the difference between men’s and women’s personalities are culturally based, not biologically
-Her theories focused on unconscious anxiety
-She suggested that normal growth can be blocked by basic anxiety stemming from needs not being met, such as childhood experiences of loneliness and/or isolation.
Came up with three coping mechanisms :
*moving toward ppl
*moving against ppl
*moving away from ppl
279
Moving toward ppl
- Horney
- Coping Mechanism
- relies on affiliation and dependence. These children become dependent on their parents and other caregivers in an effort to receive attention and affection, which provides relief from anxiety
280
Moving against ppl
- Horney
- Coping Mechanism
- relies on aggression and assertiveness. Children with this coping style find that fighting is the best way to deal with an unhappy home situation, and they deal with their feelings of insecurity by bullying other children
281
-Moving away from ppl
- Horney
- Coping Mechanism
- centers on detachment and isolation. These children handle their anxiety by withdrawing from the world. They need privacy and tend to be self-sufficient.
282
Motivation
Describes the wants or needs that direct behavior toward a goal.
