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Psychology 258 > Psych Midterm 2 > Flashcards

Psych Midterm 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What is the serial position effect?

A

The serial position effect refers to better recall for items at the beginning (primacy effect) and the end (recency effect) of a list.

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2
Q

What evidence supports the primacy effect?

A

Greater rehearsal causes transfer to long-term storage (LTS).

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3
Q

What is the recency effect?

A

The recency effect is the better recall of items at the end of a list, which are still in short-term storage (STS).

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4
Q

What problems exist with the serial position effect?

A

Arguments about parsimony, memory varying along a continuum, and the question of different memory systems.

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5
Q

What did Craik & Watkins (1973) find regarding STS to LTS transfer?

A

No advantage for greater rehearsal; memory for items was not improved by rehearsal opportunities.

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6
Q

What was Bekerian & Baddeley’s (1980) conclusion about repetition?

A

Repetition does not necessarily lead to retention of information.

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7
Q

What is the estimated capacity of the long-term store (LTS)?

A

LTS capacity is estimated to be around 2.5 petabytes or practically unlimited.

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8
Q

What did Shulman (1972) discover about LTS coding from falsely recalled words?

A

Falsely recalled words had similar meanings, indicating that LTS codes by meaning.

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9
Q

What are the two types of memory according to Tulving?

A

Explicit memory (declarative) and implicit memory (nondeclarative).

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10
Q

What is episodic memory?

A

Memory for events that occurred in one’s life, tied to specific experiences.

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11
Q

What is semantic memory?

A

Stores general knowledge, concepts, rules, and abstract ideas not tied to personal experiences.

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12
Q

What does procedural memory refer to?

A

Memory that underlies motor and cognitive skills, such as riding a bike or doing math.

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13
Q

What is retrograde amnesia?

A

Inability to remember events that occurred before a traumatic event.

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14
Q

What is anterograde amnesia?

A

Inability to form new memories of events that occurred after a traumatic event.

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15
Q

What was significant about patient H.M.?

A

He had profound amnesia after a bilateral medial temporal lobe resection but could form new procedural memories.

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16
Q

What did the case of patient K.C. reveal about memory?

A

He had retrograde amnesia for episodic memory but intact semantic knowledge and could form new procedural memories.

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17
Q

What is levels of processing theory?

A

The theory that deeper encoding enhances memory retention.

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18
Q

What are the three levels of processing?

A
  • Shallow (structural) * Intermediate (phonetic) * Deep (semantic)

think of a pool, shallow end middle and deep end

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19
Q

What is maintenance rehearsal?

A

Repetitive processing of information, such as repeating a phone number.

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20
Q

What is elaborative rehearsal?

A

More meaningful processing that relates items to other knowledge.

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21
Q

What is the self-reference effect?

A

Memory is enhanced by relating items to oneself.

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22
Q

What is the generation effect?

A

Memory is enhanced for items that are actively produced.

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23
Q

What is the testing effect?

A

Retrieval practice improves long-term retention of information.

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24
Q

What is the encoding specificity principle?

A

Memory is enhanced when conditions at retrieval match those at encoding.

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25
What is context-dependent memory?
Memory enhancement that occurs when retrieval context matches encoding context.
26
What is state-dependent memory?
Memory may be enhanced if the internal state during retrieval matches that during encoding.
27
What is consolidation?
The process of integrating new information into stored knowledge.
28
What is the savings curve?
The observation that more initial practice leads to less time needed for later recall.
29
What is mood congruence in memory retrieval?
Mood at retrieval influences the kind of memories retrieved ## Footnote For example, in a sad mood, you’re more likely to remember sad events
30
What is consolidation in the context of memory?
The process of integrating new information into stored knowledge
31
What does the savings curve demonstrate?
More initial practice results in less time to relearn a list of nonsense syllables the next day
32
What is the spacing effect?
Distributed practice produces better remembering than massed practice
33
What are the two kinds of training in memory practice?
* Massed practice: information studied repeatedly at one time * Distributed practice: information studied repeatedly in separate sessions over a longer period of time
34
What did Bahrick's study on spacing effects reveal?
Greater spacing between training sessions produced better remembering
35
What is the multiple encoding context theory?
Multiple study sessions lead to multiple types of encoding, thus greater chance of matching during test conditions
36
What is the independent variable in Kornell & Bjork's interleaved practice study?
The nature of practice
37
What is the difference between blocked and interleaved practice?
* Blocked practice: studying artists one at a time * Interleaved practice: studying artists mixed up
38
What conclusion was drawn from the interleaved practice study?
Interleaving enhances inductive learning of concepts and categories
39
What is the role of REM sleep in memory?
REM sleep has been found to improve learning complex logic games, foreign language acquisition, and visual discrimination tasks
40
What is the dual trace hypothesis?
Memory formation requires two processes: short term and longer term changes in the nervous system
41
What is the Standard Model of Systems Consolidation?
Incoming information activates cortical areas and is integrated by the hippocampus into a memory trace
42
What does the Multiple Trace Theory of Consolidation propose?
Semantic memories stored in the cortex become independent of the hippocampus, while all episodic memories always involve the hippocampus
43
What is autobiographical memory?
A form of long-term memory that comprises self-knowledge, episodes, and experiences of a person’s life
44
What is childhood (or infantile) amnesia?
Adults’ inability to remember events before ages 3-5
45
What are the three kinds of distinctiveness affecting memories?
* Primary distinctiveness * Secondary distinctiveness * Orthographic distinctiveness
46
What are flashbulb memories?
Detailed, vivid recollection of circumstances surrounding hearing about a surprising or emotional event
47
What is the constructiveness of memory?
Memory is subject to errors and can be influenced by various factors leading to false memories
48
What is false memory syndrome?
Memory of a traumatic experience that is objectively false, but the person believes it to be true
49
What did Loftus & Pickrell's study demonstrate about false memories?
Participants could be made to incorrectly remember a false event from childhood, like being lost in a mall
50
What percentage of wrongful convictions are due to eyewitness misidentification?
63%
51
What is the implication of the Innocence Project's findings?
Eyewitness testimonies can be wrong and lead to wrongful convictions
52
What is the Innocence Project?
The Innocence Project has helped exonerate over 200 wrongful convictions through DNA testing since 1989.
53
How many people has Innocence Canada helped exonerate?
29 people ## Footnote Innocence Canada has been active in exonerating wrongfully convicted individuals.
54
What is the misinformation effect?
Exposure to misleading information after witnessing an event can lead people to believe they have seen or experienced something they never did.
55
What are the possible causes of the misinformation effect?
* Overwriting * Misinformation acceptance * Source confusion
56
What does the Source Monitoring Framework include?
* Reality monitoring * Source monitoring
57
What is cryptomnesia?
Remembering a previously forgotten memory but believing it to be new and original.
58
True or False: Eyewitness testimonies can be reliable under proper conditions.
True
59
What is the difference between misinformation and disinformation?
* Misinformation: misleading or incorrect information * Disinformation: intentionally misleading or incorrect information
60
What emotional motivators can lead to belief in misinformation?
* Heightened fear * Anger
61
What is motivated reasoning?
The tendency to accept information based on its desirability rather than its accuracy.
62
Fill in the blank: The technique that involves correcting the effects of misinformation post-exposure is called _______.
debunking
63
What is the truth sandwich technique?
* Fact: give the truth first * Warn about the myth: describe the misinformation * Explain fallacy: explain why the misinformation is wrong * Fact: repeat the truth again with credible alternative explanation
64
What is the aim of prebunking?
Developing immunity to misinformation in the future using psychological inoculation techniques.
65
What is the typicality effect?
Items differ in how well they represent a category.
66
What are the three levels of category organization according to the prototype approach?
* Superordinate level * Basic level * Subordinate level
67
What is the classical approach to categorization?
Categorization based on lists of defining features that are necessary and sufficient for the meaning of the item.
68
What are defining features and characteristic features in the feature comparison model?
* Defining features: essential, required features * Characteristic features: descriptive but not essential
69
What is the exemplar approach?
Categorization based on specific exemplars of a category that one has previously encountered.
70
What does the feature comparison model suggest about sentence verification?
Relations between concepts are computed based on shared features; more features lead to slower response times.
71
What are the pros of the prototype approach?
* Accounts for concepts representing loose groups * Allows for variability * Explains how information is reduced to a single, idealized abstraction
72
What is the assumption of the natural categories approach?
Groupings or clustering of objects or concepts that occur naturally in the real world with fuzzy borders.
73
What is the role of schemas in memory?
Schemas help structure our understanding and impact how we recall information.
74
What is the primary benefit of categorization according to Bruner, Goodnow, & Austin (1956)?
Reduces complexity of the environment.
75
What is the typicality effect related to?
The degree to which items represent a category.
76
What are defining features of a category?
Essential characteristics that define a category ## Footnote Examples include wings and feathers for birds.
77
What are characteristic features of a category?
Descriptive but not essential characteristics ## Footnote Examples include flying and singing for birds.
78
What is a sentence verification task?
A task measuring response time (RT) to determine if a sentence is true or false
79
What is the two-stage model in categorization?
A model explaining typicality effects and true/false effects in categorization
80
What are the pros of the two-stage model?
* Faster RT for typical members of a category * Quick rejection of false sentences
81
What is a con of the two-stage model?
Does not explain category size effect
82
What is the Semantic Network Model?
A model representing concepts as interconnected nodes
83
What are the assumptions of the Hierarchical-Network Model?
* Nodes represent single concepts * Concepts organized hierarchically
84
What is the function of 'isa' pathways in the Hierarchical-Network Model?
Express category membership
85
What do 'hasa' pathways in the Hierarchical-Network Model express?
Express properties of concepts
86
What is cognitive economy in the Hierarchical-Network Model?
Storing properties at the most general level possible to avoid redundancy
87
What is the Spreading Activation Model?
A model where link length represents degree of relatedness between concepts
88
What is semantic priming effect?
Activation of a conceptual node facilitates retrieval of associated concepts
89
What is the Connectionist Approach?
A model based on artificial neural networks for information processing
90
What are the components of the Connectionist Approach?
* Neuronally inspired processing units * Excitatory/inhibitory connections * Learning rules for connection modification
91
What are schemas?
Generalized knowledge about things or events
92
What are scripts in the context of schemas?
Sequences of actions for complex situations and events
93
What did Bower & colleagues (1979) discover about scripts?
Scripts help guide actions and may fill in details
94
What is encoding in relation to schemas?
Schemas add meaning, aiding encoding and remembering
95
What is eidetic memory?
A type of memory that allows individuals to recall images with high precision
96
What is the basis of analog coding approach to imagery?
Imagery is considered akin to perception, retaining sensory qualities
97
What does propositional coding refer to?
Images represented by abstract, symbolic descriptions of visual scenes
98
What is Paivio’s Dual Coding Theory?
A theory suggesting two independent but interacting systems for processing images and verbal information
99
What are the metrical components of cognitive maps?
* Landmark knowledge * Route-road knowledge * Survey knowledge
100
What are structural components of cognitive maps?
Information about regions and clusters
101
What did Hirtle & Jonides (1985) find about cognitive maps?
Distance between landmarks is judged, and members of the same cluster are perceived as closer
102
What is a key finding from Milgram & Jodelet (1976) regarding cognitive maps?
Cognitive maps do not always correspond to physical locations

Psychology 258 (1 decks)

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