PSYCH PAPER 3

Question 1

What are the ethical considerations that must be kept in mind when carrying out research?

Answer 1

informed consent
confidentiality
right to withdraw
no undue stress or harm
deception
debrief

Question 2

Opportunity sample

Answer 2

Selective participants who are most easily available/accessible to the researcher
Time and cost effective
biased

Question 3

self-selected sample/volunteer sample

Answer 3

participants are recruited on a voluntary basis, usually through advertising or word-of-mouth, and they self-select into the study
useful when the researcher has limited access to the population or when participants must meet certain criteria to be eligible for the study
May be biased

Question 4

snowball sample

Answer 4

Participants are recruited through referrals by other participants of the study
used when the researcher is studying a hard-to-reach population, such as individuals with a stigmatized condition or those with limited access to resources

Question 5

random sampling

Answer 5

Every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected
Most unbiased method, since participants are chosen at random, and everyone has equal chance

Question 6

stratified sampling

Answer 6

a variation of random sampling; the population is divided into subgroups and weighted based on demographic characteristics of the national population

Question 7

purposive sampling

Answer 7

Participants are selected based on a specific criteria or characteristic
Aims to be representative of the population being studied
Cannot be generalized to wider population, since everyone has one shared particular something

Question 8

quota sample

Answer 8

A sample deliberately constructed to reflect several of the major characteristics of a given population

Question 9

theoretical sample

Answer 9

In qualitative research, a sample that helps the researcher understand or formulate a concept or interpretation.

Question 10

laboratory experiment

Answer 10

Manipulation of one or more independent variables to investigate their effect on one or more dependent variable, which controlling other variables
Can help to establish a cause and effect relationship
Usually has a control condition + the IV conditions to establish comparisons

Question 11

field experiment

Answer 11

Independent variables are still being manipulated by the researcher
Random assignment to conditions
Conducted in the natural setting where the behavior/phenomenon occurs

Question 12

natural experiment

Answer 12

The experimenter cannot manipulate any variables
The independent variable already exists
The environment itself could be controlled
Non random assignment of participants

Question 13

quasi experiment

Answer 13

Participants are based depending on a particular characteristics
Usually involves purposive sampling
Comparison of groups, usually a control group is used
Participants are not randomly assigned to conditions
No control of the IV

Question 14

correlational study

Answer 14

Non experimental, we are analyzing the relationship between two variables
Use of data
Cannot establish a cause and effect relationship

Question 15

case study

Answer 15

a detailed analysis over time of an area of interest (a case) to produce context-dependent knowledge; ex. an in-depth study of an individual, organisation, etc.

not a singular method but data is collected using method triangulation. uses different perspectives, collects rich data

case studies are a flexible approach, they can help to generate more research or more theories

potential risk for researcher bias, low generalisability because they are so specific

Question 16

interviews

Answer 16

A researcher has a discussion with the participant one on one
Good way to obtain qualitative informations
More personal than a survey or a questionnaire or survey
questions, their wordings, and their order of administration are determined in advance

Question 17

naturalistic observations

Answer 17

Observation of a phenomenon/behavior where it naturally/originally occurs
Can be covert or overt
Usually qualitative data is collected

Question 18

triangulation

Answer 18

use of multiple methods or sources of data to study a particular phenomenon or research question
Increase validity and reliability

Question 19

observation

Answer 19

the action or process of observing something or someone carefully or in order to gain information.

Question 20

overt observation

Answer 20

Participants know they are being observed

Question 21

Covert observation

Answer 21

observation in which the observer’s presence or purpose is kept secret from those being observed

Question 22

structured interview

Answer 22

a research procedure in which all participants are asked to answer the same questions

Question 23

semi-structured interview

Answer 23

Pre-prepared questions (everyone gets the same) that might be open ended
Can have space for follow up questions
Production of rich qualitative data

Question 24

unstructured interview

Answer 24

Flexible and open type of interview, with space for spontaneity
The questions and the order in which theta re presented is not set
Interviewers can ask follow up questions based on the participant’s responses
Open ended

Question 25

focus group

Answer 25

Small group of people brought together to answer questions in a moderated environment Prompts of conversation shed light on the area of study Usually bring together people based on a particular shared characteristic they have

Question 26

questionnaire/survey

Answer 26

Every participant has the same stimulus Collects self reported data, be it quantitative or qualitative Can help to have a large sample, efficient way to investigate a lot of people

Question 27

descriptive study

Answer 27

a research method that involves observing and noting the behavior of people or other animals to provide a systematic and objective analysis of the behavior. Variables are approached separately

Question 28

independent measures

Answer 28

experimental design where separate participants take part in each of the conditions

Question 29

repeated measures

Answer 29

All participants take part in all conditions of the experiment

Question 30

matched pairs design

Answer 30

A method of assigning subjects to groups in which pairs of subjects are first matched on some characteristic and then individually assigned randomly to groups.

Question 31

double blind

Answer 31

an observation whose true purpose is hidden from both the observer and the person being observed

Question 32

experiment

Answer 32

a research method in which the researcher manipulates (IV) and controls certain variables (CV) to observe the effects on other variables (DV) can create a cause and effect relationship-> internal validity, easily replicated low external validity

Question 33

single blind study

Answer 33

study in which the subjects do not know if they are in the experimental or the control group

Question 34

what is informed consent?

Answer 34

Explicit and voluntary agreement of the individual after they have been provided with information about the study or treatment (nature, purpose, risks and benefits) Written or oral

Question 35

what is deception?

Answer 35

Intentional misleading of the participants about the nature of the study prevents participants from altering their behavior in response to knowledge of the study's true purpose Is sometimes necessary

Question 36

what is debriefing?

Answer 36

Provides participants with information about the purpose of the study, addressing concerns/negative effects after the study has been completed Ensure that participants understand what was done and why Address misconceptions or misunderstandings Important when deception was involved for the purpose of a study

Question 37

what is the right to withdrawal?

Answer 37

Participants can withdraw from the study at any time, without penalty or consequences Participants have the autonomy to make their own decisions

Question 38

what is confidentiality?

Answer 38

Protect privacy of individuals who participate in research or receive clinical services No information can be disclosed to unauthorized individuals No use of personal names Videotapes and recordings kept safe No identifiable or personal information used in any psychological reports/publication

Question 39

what is protection from harm?

Answer 39

Protection from any type of harm, any situation where someone would potentially feel uncomfortable, mental or physical

Question 40

what are confounding variables?

Answer 40

Confounding variables in psychological research refer to variables that are not the main focus of a study but can affect the relationship between the independent and dependent variables being studied Can lead to misleading conclusions if they are not taken into account or controlled

Question 41

what is population validity?

Answer 41

the extent to which findings from a study can be generalized to the broader population from which the sample was drawn

Question 42

what is cross cultural validity?

Answer 42

the extent to which research findings and psychological concepts can be applied across different cultural contexts

Question 43

what is ecological validity?

Answer 43

the extent to which research findings and psychological concepts can be applied across different ecological settings (transfer from lab to the real world)

Question 44

what is construct validity?

Answer 44

Are we measuring what we are supposed to be measuring?

Question 45

what is maturation?

Answer 45

Participants change over the course of the study

Question 46

what is regression to the mean?

Answer 46

a group of participants is selected based on extreme scores on a particular variable When the group is tested again at a later time, their scores on the variable tend to move closer to the mean or average score for the population

Question 47

what is experimental mortality?

Answer 47

Participants dropping out from the study over time

Question 48

what are demand characteristics?

Answer 48

cues that might indicate the research objectives to participants Participants can change their behavior

Question 49

what is establishing a rapport?

Answer 49

building a positive and trusting relationship between the researcher and the participant(s) in a study Crucial, so that participants are comfortable enough to actually participate in the study and share their data

Question 50

what is iterative questioning?

Answer 50

asking follow-up questions to a participant's initial response in order to clarify, expand, or deepen

Question 51

what is reflexivity?

Answer 51

the process of reflecting on how the researcher's own values, biases, and assumptions may influence the research process and the interpretation of data Makes sure that the findings are valid and reliable

Question 52

what is sample to population generalisation?

Answer 52

making inferences about a larger population based on data collected from a smaller sample Using data from the sample to draw conclusions about the wider population from which the sample was drawn

Question 53

what is case to case generalisation?

Answer 53

making inferences about a specific case based on data collected from one or more other cases. This involves using the findings from one particular case to draw conclusions or make predictions about other cases that share similar characteristics or feature Usually comes from a case study Sometimes not applicable, the case is too specific

Question 54

what is theoretical generalisation?

Answer 54

applying the findings of a study to a broader theoretical framework or model Not always straightforward Testing theoretical models basically

Question 55

what is acquiescence in participant bias?

Answer 55

participants have a tendency to agree or acquiesce with statements or questions, regardless of their actual beliefs or attitudes. This bias can be a result of social desirability bias or a desire to please the researcher or conform to societal norms

Question 56

what is social desirability?

Answer 56

participants respond in a way that they believe will be viewed positively by others, rather than providing an accurate or truthful response

Question 57

what is dominant respondent effect?

Answer 57

one or a few participants in a group dominate the discussion or influence the responses of others (occurs in focus groups)

Question 58

what is sensitivity?

Answer 58

when participants in a study become aware of the aims or hypotheses of the study and modify their responses or behaviors accordingly

Question 59

what is confirmation bias?

Answer 59

when researchers seek out, interpret, or remember information in a way that confirms their pre-existing beliefs or hypotheses, while discounting or ignoring information that contradicts them

Question 60

what is leading question bias?

Answer 60

a question or statement is worded in a way that suggests a particular response or leads the participant to a certain answer

Question 61

what is question order bias?

Answer 61

when the order in which questions are presented to participants influences their responses to subsequent questions May cause the participant to not answer in a way that would be truthful to them

Question 62

what is sampling bias?

Answer 62

when the participants or sample selected for a study are not representative of the population being studied

Question 63

what is biased reporting?

Answer 63

when researchers selectively report or emphasize certain results or findings in their published articles or reports, while ignoring or downplaying others