Psych/Soc

Question 1

_______________
- smallest magnitude of a stimulus identifiable 50% of the time

Answer 1

Sensory threshold

Question 2

_______________
- Smallest noticeable change in baseline stimulus

Answer 2

Just noticeable difference (jnd)

Question 3

_______________ law
- The just noticeable difference between a baseline stimulus level & a new level varies in proportion to the baseline stimulus
- Turning a low sound up 1 db is more noticeable than turning a loud sound up 1db

Answer 3

Webers law

Question 4

_______________ theory
- competing stimuli interfere with the ability to identify the presence or absence of a target stimulus

Answer 4

Signal detection theory

Question 5

_______________
- under continued or extreme stimulation, sensory receptors undergo physiological changes that affect the degree of sensitivity

Answer 5

Sensory adaptation

Question 6

_______________ theory
- brain processes sense input in multiple ways at 1 time

Answer 6

Parallel processing theory

Question 7

_______________ system
- complex system integrating many bodily sensations (temperature, touch, proprioception, pain)

Answer 7

Somatosensory system

Question 8

_______________
- awareness of body position

Answer 8

Proprioception

Question 9

_______________
- identifies body positioning & movement

Answer 9

Kinesthetic sense

Question 10

_______________
- responsible for balance & orientation

Answer 10

Vestibular system

Question 11

_______________
- registered through chemoreceptors & taste buds

Answer 11

Taste

Question 12

_______________
- registered through chemoreceptors & olfactory cells

Answer 12

Smell

Question 13

_______________
- excreted chemical compounds that elicit a specific response (species specific)
-EX: mark territories, signal food trails, warn of danger, indicate sexual receptivity, & increase maternal bond

Answer 13

Pheromones

Question 14

_______________
- interpretation of the information received from senses

Answer 14

Perception

Question 15

_______________
- allows perception of an object in a consistent way

Answer 15

Perceptual constancy

Question 16

_______________
- ability to determine how far away an object is

Answer 16

Depth perception

Question 17

_______________
- allows perception of visual outlines as constituting an object regardless of changes in size, shape, & environment

Answer 17

Form constancy

Question 18

_______________
- visual cues & vestibular senses determine if an object is moving

Answer 18

Motion

Question 19

_____________ principles
- The brain organizes small bits of information into larger patterns

Answer 19

Gestalt principles

Question 20

_______________ processing
- using small bits of information to develop a larger picture

Answer 20

Bottom-up processing

Question 21

_______________ processing
- incorporating experience, knowledge, & expectations to interpret lower-level bits of information

Answer 21

Top-down processing

Question 22

_______________
- a state of focused awareness on a given set of stimuli

Answer 22

Attention

Question 23

_____________ attention
- The process of filtering out extraneous stimuli to direct attention onto the object of interest

Answer 23

Selective attention

Question 24

_____________ attention
- placing attention onto more than 1 objects simultaneously such that the attention to each object is diminished

Answer 24

Divided attention

Question 25

_______________
- the ability to take in, process, store, & retrieve information
- development has predictable childhood & adolescent stages

Answer 25

Cognition

Question 26

_______________ theory
- stages of cognitive development
Sensorimotor
Preoperational
Concrete operational
Formal operational

Answer 26

Piaget’s theory

Question 27

____________ vs. ____________
- both act on a child’s cognitive development

Answer 27

Environment
Heredity

Question 28

Cognitive changes in _______________
- diminished ability to process information (verbal meaning, spatial orientation, inductive reasoning, number ability, word fluency, short-term & long-term memory)

Answer 28

Late adulthood

Question 29

_____________effects cognitive development
- cognitive development occurs in a cultural context (influences development, problem-solving abilities, & values)

Answer 29

Culture

Question 30

_______________
- The mental processes involved in identifying, analyzing, & resolving problems

Answer 30

Problem solving

Question 31

_______________
- applies learned strategies & intuitive insights to a current problem

Answer 31

Trial & Error

Question 32

_______________
- uses specific steps that consistently lead to success

Answer 32

Algorithm

Question 33

_______________
- a highly simplified general rule of thumb
- effective if used correctly
- ineffective if overgeneralized

Answer 33

Heuristic

Question 34

__________________ theory
- problem solving encompasses current state of affairs, desired state of affairs, & all possible options in between

Answer 34

Problem space theory

Question 35

_______________
- behaviors that were successful in the past are likely to be repeated even if unsuccessful in a current situation

Answer 35

Law of effect

Question 36

__________ to effective problem solving
- valid strategy applied incorrectly, ineffective strategy, inefficiency, false assumptions, irrelevant information, absence of rational thought, & functional fixedness

Answer 36

Barriers

Question 37

_______________
- automatic preferences for a specific action
- often unconscious
- may block rational thoughts

Answer 37

Biases

Question 38

__________ & ______ can override logic and rational thought processes

Answer 38

Intuition & Emotion

Question 39

____________ & __________ can result in refusal to abandon a belief in the face of evidence against it

Answer 39

Overconfidence & belief perseverance

Question 40

_______________
- measurable state of awareness of environment

Answer 40

Alertness

Question 41

_______________
- reduced sensory perception & muscle tension
- contains stages & cycles
- dreaming

Answer 41

Sleep

Question 42

Stages ________ are non-REM sleep
Stages ________ is REM sleep

Answer 42

1-4
5

Question 43

Sleep cycles are stages 1-5 with the 1st cycle being 70-100 mins while subsequent cycles become __________

Answer 43

Longer

Question 44

True or false
Dreaming occur most often during REM sleep while dreaming in non-REM is mostly forgotten

Answer 44

True

Question 45

_______________
- alertness, physically still, & open to sensing stimuli
- multiple benefits

Answer 45

Meditation

Question 46

_______________
- reduced state of consciousness with increased focus is attention & increased susceptibility to suggestion
- multiple therapeutic applications

Answer 46

Hypnosis

Question 47

_______________
- biological regulation occurring in 24hr cycles
- influenced by environments & behavior

Answer 47

Circadian rhythms

Question 48

_______________
- ability to learn, be flexible in, & adapt to new situations
- capacity for abstract thinking

Answer 48

Intelligence

Question 49

__________ & __________ can both influence intelligence

Answer 49

Heredity & Environment

Question 50

_______________
- genetic markers in 3 chromosomes
- twin studies & adoption studies document influence of heredity

Answer 50

Heredity

Question 51

_______________
- influences are family of origin, education, economics, race, gender, & academic enrichment
- high-quality communication from 0-3yrs & early education programs also have an impact

Answer 51

Environment

Question 52

IQ score of 70 or lower = ______________
IQ score of 130 or greater = _____________

Answer 52

Intellectual disability or intellectual development disorder
Gifted

Question 53

_______________
- encoding & storage of information to be retrieved later

Answer 53

Memory

Question 54

_______________
- process by which sensory information is converted into stored memory

Answer 54

Encoding

Question 55

_______________
- includes sensory memory, short-term memory, working memory, & long-term memory
- semantic network (web of interrelated facts) or spreading activation (retrieval enhanced with contextual information)

Answer 55

Storage

Question 56

Retrieval can be from ____________ or ____________

Answer 56

Short term or Long term

Question 57

Types of retrieval include __________, __________, & __________ (retrieval cues enhance ability to access a memory)

Answer 57

Recall
Recognition
Relearning

Question 58

_______________
- pathological memory loss that disrupts functioning

Answer 58

Memory dysfunction

Question 59

Aging & Memory
- forgetfulness especially after age ______
- deficiencies in processing new memories, in binding information in memory, & in retrieval associations

Answer 59

65 years

Question 60

True or false
Procedural & emotionally imprinted memory & semantic knowledge are not affected with aging memory loss

Answer 60

True

Question 61

_______________
- disruption in brain’s ability to transmit information
- development of plaques & tangles
- personality changes, cognitive losses, & communication losses
- executive, short-term, & long-term memory affected

Answer 61

Alzheimer’s disease

Question 62

_______________
- memory loss from Thiamine deficiency
- primarily due to alcohol abuse
- severe morning sickness, dialysis
- difficulty learning (memory gaps)

Answer 62

Korsakoff’s syndrome

Question 63

_______________
- brains flexibility for learning & relearning (throughout life)

Answer 63

Neural plasticity

Question 64

__________ is the storage of memory
__________ involves creation of new neural pathways

Answer 64

Learning
Memory

Question 65

____________________
- new neural pathways become stronger the more they are used which produces an increased potential for pathway to be activated again

Answer 65

Long term potentiation

Question 66

_______________
- nonpathological memory loss over time

Answer 66

Decay

Question 67

_______________
- old & new memories interfere with storage and/or retrieval

Answer 67

Interference

Question 68

_______________
- mind fills in details of a memory (unconscious)

Answer 68

Memory construction

Question 69

_______________
- the mind tries to identify the source of a memory

Answer 69

Source monitoring error
(a source monitoring error occurs when the mind does so incorrectly)

Question 70

__________ theory
- language is learned through observation & imitation, direct instruction, and conditioning

Answer 70

Learning theory

Question 71

_______________ theory
- humans are born with a language acquisition device (LAD) that accounts for the order in which children learn structure, the mistakes they make, & the ability to generalize grammar rapidly from limited input

Answer 71

Nativist perspective theory

Question 72

_______________ theory
- language development is biological & social and influenced by desire to communicate
- children are born with a brain that has the inherent ability to learn language
- children learn language socially by conversation with older people

Answer 72

Interactionist theory

Question 73

True or False
Language structure influences world view & perceptions of interactions with others

Answer 73

True

Question 74

Brain areas that control language & speech
- __________ processes language information
- __________ is located in the left temporal lobe & enables understanding of spoken words (produces written & spoken language)
- __________ is located in the left frontal lobe & directs muscle movement necessary for producing speech
- __________ processes written language

Answer 74

Left Hemisphere
Wernicke’s area
Broca’s area
Angular gyrus

Question 75

Drug type : ______________
- increase energy & alertness
- affect release & reuptake of dopamine-amphetamines, cocaine, Ritalin, caffience, nicotine

Answer 75

Stimulants

Question 76

Drug type : ______________
- relaxation, reduce anxiety, & sleep aid
- memory & judgment impaired
- increase GABA’s ability to attach to receptor
- Alcohol & Benzodiazepines

Answer 76

Depressants

Question 77

Drug type : ______________
- activate endorphin synapses
- morphine, heroin, & opiates

Answer 77

Narcotics

Question 78

Drug type : ______________
- operate on nervous system
- hallucinations, delusions, anxiety, & agitation
- PCP, LSD, MDMA

Answer 78

Hallucinogens

Question 79

Drug type : ______________
- negative feedback receptors of excitatory, inhibitory neurotransmitters

Answer 79

Cannabis

Question 80

Prenatal physiological development: 3 trimesters
- 1st trimester : ___________________________
- 2nd trimester : __________________________
- 3rd trimester : __________________________

Answer 80

1st trimester : cells differentiate & organs develop
2nd trimester : bones & skeleton form, sexual organs visible, hair grows, & fingerprints form
3rd trimester : fetal development toward becoming viable outside the womb

Question 81

_______________
- Freud
- personality determined by interactions between ID (primal drives), ego (moderates ID & superego), & superego (ethical values)

Answer 81

Psychoanalytic

Question 82

_______________
- people have freedom of choice
- subjective world view influences personality development & behavior
Carl Rogers & Abraham Maslow

Answer 82

Humanistic

Question 83

_______________
- personality features can be identified, measured, & placed on a continuum (openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism)

Answer 83

Trait

Question 84

_______________
- we learn by observing the behavior of others
- Bandura

Answer 84

Social cognitive

Question 85

_______________
- impact of brain chemistry on personality
- Eysenck, Gray, & Cloninger

Answer 85

Biological

Question 86

_______________
- interactions between person & environment
- a person’s thoughts & feelings do not influence personality development
- Skinner, Pavlov, & Watson

Answer 86

Behaviorist

Question 87

_______________
- impairment in behavior, thinking, & mood caused by psychological symptoms
- significantly impacts functioning areas of life

Answer 87

Psychological disorder

Question 88

___________ model
- psychological disorder is an illness to be cured
- Treatment focuses on biology, physiology, & genetics of the illness

Answer 88

Biomedical model

Question 89

_______________ model
- biological, psychological, & social factors contribute to disorder
- risk & resiliency factors incorporated into treatment
- treats person in context of environment, psychological, social, biological factors
- emphasizes change to entire system

Answer 89

Biopsychosocial model

Question 90

Types of psychological disorders are categorized based on the ________

Answer 90

DSM-5
“diagnostic & statistical manual for mental disorders - 5th edition”

Question 91

DSM-5 major categories
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________

Answer 91

Anxiety
Trauma
Obsessive compulsive
Somatic symptoms
Depression
Bipolar
Schizophrenia
Dissociative
Personality disorders

Question 92

_______________ bases
- biology influences development of schizophrenia, depression, Alzheimer’s disease, & Parkinson’s disease

Answer 92

Biological bases

Question 93

Emotions include __________, __________ & __________

Answer 93

physiological
behavioral
cognitive

Question 94

Universal Emotions (7) :

Answer 94

Fear
Anger
Happiness
Surprise
Joy
Disgust
Sadness

Question 95

Biological components of emotion:
- __________ regulates emotion & is key role in long-term memory formation
- _________ exerts higher-level emotional control & is responsible for delayed gratification and assessing consequences of behaviors
- _________ triggers sympathetic nervous system flight-or-fight response

Answer 95

Limbic system
Prefrontal cortex
Amygdala

Question 96

The adaptive role of emotion has evolved through ____________ & plays a role in mate selection and response to fearful situations

Answer 96

natural selection

Question 97

_______________ theory
- in response to a stimulus where physiological changes occur before emotional changes

Answer 97

James-Lange theory

Question 98

_______________ theory
- emotion primarily experienced in the thalamic region of the brain
- physiologic response occurs either simultaneously or secondarily
- emotion response is not a direct result of physical response

Answer 98

Canon-Bard theory

Question 99

_______________ theory
- 2 factor theory
- physiological stimulation plays a crucial role in emotion
- the emotional response is triggered by perception of & interpretation of physical reaction to an event

Answer 99

Schlatter-Singer theory

Question 100

Factors that influence motivation are __________, __________, & __________

Answer 100

instinct
arousal
needs/drives

Question 101

_______________
- unconscious innate biological behaviors that are genetically programmed

Answer 101

Instinct

Question 102

_______________
- degree of physical & mental responsiveness to environment

Answer 102

arousal

Question 103

_______________
- urge to reduce discomfort caused by unmet physiological need

Answer 103

needs/drive

Question 104

_______________ theory
- organism strive to maintain homeostasis
- a type of theory of motivation

Answer 104

Drive reduction theory

Question 105

_______________ theory
- motivated by expectations of external reward
- a type of theory of motivation

Answer 105

Incentive theory

Question 106

_______________ theory
- motivated to satisfy most-pressing needs
- physiological (food or shelter), higher order needs (esteem or love)
- a type of theory of motivation

Answer 106

Need-based theory

Question 107

______________ theory
- motivated by thoughts, beliefs, & values
- a type of theory of motivation

Answer 107

Cognitive theory

Question 108

True or false
The application of the motivation theories are for treating compulsive behaviors (substance abuse, eating disorders, & sexual compulsions)

Answer 108

True

Question 109

_______________
- favorable or unfavorable appraisal of another person, group, event, or object
- expressed through behavior, emotions, & beliefs

Answer 109

Attitude

Question 110

The 3 components of attitude are __________, __________, & __________

Answer 110

cognitive (beliefs & ideas)
affective (emotion)
behavioral

Question 111

There is a link between __________ & __________ because strong attitudes are more likely to lead to action & certain behaviors influence attitudes and lead to new behaviors (marketing techniques utilize)

Answer 111

attitude & behavior

Question 112

_______________
- attitudes in conflict cause discomfort
- discomfort is resolved by changing attitudes or behavior or by ignoring one of the conflicting attitudes

Answer 112

Cognitive dissonance

Question 113

_______________
- state of physiological emotional tension due to life circumstances

Answer 113

Stress

Question 114

_______________
- perspective on a given stressor
- can be positive or negative

Answer 114

Appraisal

Question 115

The outcomes of stress
Positive are __________
Negatives are __________

Answer 115

Motivational
Inhibit functioning

Question 116

_______________
- is a response to negative stress
- has 3 phases : alarm, resistance, & exhaustion

Answer 116

General adaption syndrome (GAS)

Question 117

_______________
- groups may arrive at more extreme decisions than each individual member would choose

Answer 117

Group polarization

Question 118

_______________
- being observed while attempting a task can improve or diminish performance depending on where task is simple, familiar, complex, or novel

Answer 118

Social facilitation

Question 119

_______________
- people give up identity & norms of behavior when in a group
- adopt identity of group, leaving them vulnerable to influence

Answer 119

Deindividuation

Question 120

_______________
- people act less likely to help in emergency if other are present (thinking someone else will help)

Answer 120

Bystander effect

Question 121

_______________
- people exert less effort when part of a group than when alone

Answer 121

Social loafing

Question 122

_______________
- influence that peers exert on a person’s behavior
- positive or negative
- influenced by individual’s perceptions which may not be accurate

Answer 122

Peer pressure

Question 123

_______________
- change in behavior as a result of internal or external conditions
- takes place continually

Answer 123

Learning

Question 124

2 types of learning are ____________ & ____________

Answer 124

Nonassociative & Associative Learning

Question 125

_______________ Learning
- nervous system response is more likely to occur the more it is used
- Habituation & Dishabituation

Answer 125

Nonassociative Learning

Question 126

_______________ Learning
- behavior becomes more or less likely to occur if it takes place in proximity to a stimulus that is pleasant or unpleasant
- based on conditioning (association of stimuli & behaviors)
- Classical & Operant

Answer 126

Associative Learning

Question 127

Learning can be done through __________ or ____________

Answer 127

Observation or Direct instruction

Question 128

_______________
- when exposed to a stimulus over time, the response to the stimulus decreases if no reinforcement (Nonassociative learning)

Answer 128

Habituation

Question 129

_______________
- a response that has been diminished through habituation returns when the stimulus is removed for a period of time & then reintroduced (Nonassociative learning)

Answer 129

Dishabituation

Question 130

_______________
- repeated exposure to a stimulus makes the response more likely

Answer 130

Sensitization

Question 131

_______________
- associates neutral stimulus with a response by applying the neutral stimulus ‘before’ an involuntary reflex (Associative learning)

Answer 131

Classical

Question 132

_______________
- increases or decreases likelihood of a voluntary behavior by applying reward or punishment ‘after’ the behavior

Answer 132

Operant

Question 133

_______________ learning
- people learn specific behaviors by observing behaviors of others & practicing
- can be positive or negative behaviors

Answer 133

Observational learning

Question 134

_______________
- brain cells that are activated when an individual sees someone perform an action & reactivated when the individual performs the action
- allow people to feel the emotional states of others vicariously (vicarious emotion)

Answer 134

Mirror neurons

Question 135

_______________ model
- attitude change occurs by central route or peripheral route

Answer 135

Elaboration likelihood model

Question 136

Elaboration likelihood model :
_________ route
- person is eager to hear message & is capable of interpreting it
- allows person to appraise message critically & make a more informed decision

Answer 136

Central route

Question 137

Elaboration likelihood model :
_________ route
- little motivation to learn or the topic exceeds cognitive abilities
- person focuses on peripheral information & make a more impulsive decision

Answer 137

Peripheral route

Question 138

____________ theory
- motivation is driven by internal factors & external factors, such as observation of others and the expectation of reward

Answer 138

Social cognitive theory

Question 139

Social cognitive theory ;
________ factors - observes behavior of others & consequences of the behavior
________ factors - uses evaluations to determine whether to imitate behavior

Answer 139

External factors
Internal factors

Question 140

____________
- perception of oneself as an individual & as a member of various social groups based upon self-evaluation and self-schema

Answer 140

Self-Concept

Question 141

____________
- the aspect of a person’s identity that includes the groups with which the person associates with such as family, school, clubs, or political party

Answer 141

Social identity

Question 142

____________
- expression & conception of self-concept
- encompasses values, beliefs, strengths, & weaknesses (which are heavily influenced by interactions with other people & social systems)

Answer 142

Identity

Question 143

____________
- perception of one’s overall value, purpose, ability, & emotional response to self-appraisal
- influenced by relationships (ex: primary childhood caregiver)

Answer 143

Self-esteem

Question 144

____________
- one’s sense of having tools & ability to cope with life

Answer 144

Self-efficacy

Question 145

____________ of control
- a perception of whether one controls one’s life through inner resources (internal locus) or one is controlled by others (external locus)

Answer 145

Locus of control

Question 146

____________
- categories of personal & social identity used to describe oneself and connections with others

Answer 146

Identities

Question 147

Freud’s 5 stages of psychosexual development (based on primary pleasure zone) :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Answer 147

Oral (0- 18 months)
Anal (18 months - 3 years)
Phallic (3 - 6 years)
Latency (6 years - puberty)
Genital (puberty & above)

Question 148

________________ is a psychoanalytic theory that describes a child’s feelings of desire for their opposite-sex parent & jealousy and anger toward their same-sex parent

Answer 148

Oedipus complex
(found in phallic stage in psychosexual development)

Question 149

Erickson’s 8 stages of psychosocial development (individual must resolve certain development tasks in a specific order)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Answer 149

Trust vs. Mistrust (0 - 18 months)
Autonomy vs. Shame (18 months - 3yrs)
Initiative vs. Guilt (3 - 5 years)
Industry vs. Inferiority (5 - 12 years)
Identity vs. Role confusion (13 - 19 years)
Intimacy vs. Isolation (20 - 39 years)
Generativity vs. Stagnation (40 - 64 years)
Ego integrity vs. Despair (65 - death)

Question 150

____________
- cognitive framework for organizing & interpreting information

Answer 150

Schema

Question 151

Adaptation
- learning of skills necessary to adjust to the world
- __________ : processing of new info through existing schema
- __________ : adjustment to schema in dace of new info that cannot be assimilated by old schema

Answer 151

Assimilation
Accommodation

Question 152

____________
- desired internal state when schema is successful

Answer 152

Equilibrium

Question 153

Piaget’s 4 stages of Cognitive Development
1.
2.
3.
4.

Answer 153

Sensorimotor (0-2 years)
Pre-operational thought (2-7 years)
Concrete Operational (7-12 years)
Formal Operational (12-16 years)

Question 154

True or False
Piaget’s stages end at Adolescence unlike Erickson’s which continue through life

Answer 154

True

Question 155

Piaget’s Cognitive Development stage:
__________
- awareness of use of senses to understand world
- object permanence (object continues to exist when unseen)
- goal-directed behavior

Answer 155

Sensorimotor

Question 156

Piaget’s Cognitive Development stage:
__________
- thinking symbolically about objects/people not present
- Skills include classification (similarities/differences), seriation (organize in order), & conservation (size unchanged but shape changes)
- Obstacles include egocentrism (inability to understand perspective of others) & centration (focus on single aspect of a situation due to inability to see multiple aspects)

Answer 156

Pre-operational thought

Question 157

Piaget’s Cognitive Development stage:
__________
- logical thinking
- concrete thought but not abstract thought

Answer 157

Concrete Operational

Question 158

Piaget’s Cognitive Development stage:
__________
- abstract thought
- higher order reasoning

Answer 158

Formal Operational

Question 159

____________ of identity development
- identity formation influenced by social environment, culture, biology, motivation, parental attachment, & judgment

Answer 159

Social Factors

Question 160

____________ theory of sociocultural development
- sociocultural factors determine the direction of personality development & knowledge acquisition

Answer 160

Vygotsky’s theory of sociocultural development

Question 161

The most significant influence in sociocultural development is social interaction with __________, _________, & other adults

Answer 161

Parents & Teachers

Question 162

True of False
The use of language is important in the developmental process in sociocultural development

Answer 162

True

Question 163

__________ theory
- assigning explanations for behavior to contextualize

Answer 163

Attribution theory

Question 164

__________________
- ascribing internal characteristics to explain behavior of others rather than considering external explanations
- internal explanations like “stupid” or “inept”

Answer 164

Fundamental attribution error

Question 165

Perceptions & beliefs about ourselves influence ____________ we make about others

Answer 165

Attributions

Question 166

If we believe a person’s behavior is caused by environmental factors rather than by a personality trait then we tend to believe the person is (less OR more) likely to repeat the behavior

Answer 166

Less

Question 167

_________________
- can lead to misassumptions about reasons for actions of people from other cultures
- due to stereotypes or misunderstanding cultural expressions

Answer 167

Cultural differences

Question 168

____________
- negative opinion about a group based solely on discernable characteristics including race, gender, age, sexuality, or religious beliefs

Answer 168

Prejudice

Question 169

____________
- preference for a certain standpoint (as opposed to deeply help belief)
- bias inclines an individual toward certain behaviors or attitudes

Answer 169

Bias

Question 170

____________
- a commonly held generalization about a group of people

Answer 170

Stereotype

Question 171

____________
- sociologist Robert Merton defined this as a “false definition of the situation evoking a new behavior which makes the original false conception come true”

Answer 171

Self-fulfilling prophecy

Question 172

_________________
- apprehension experienced by individuals who fear that their behavior or performance will confirm a negative stereotype about their social group

Answer 172

Stereotype threat

Question 173

Culture & gender determine who can express specific _________ and when & which are acceptable

Answer 173

Feelings (emotions)

Question 174

____________
- social interactions guided by innate desire to leave a positive impression on other people
- individuals & social groups continually try to influence other people’s perceptions by choosing what info to share with others

Answer 174

Impression management

Question 175

____________ communication
- based on a language system (grammatical rules)
- includes spoken, written, & signed language

Answer 175

Verbal communication (linguistic)

Question 176

____________ communication
- not based on grammatical rules & conveys meaning through gestures, face, eye contact, posture, tone of voice, and touch

Answer 176

Nonverbal communication

Question 177

____________ communication
- less able to convey complexities
- primates & other animals able to understand some abstract vocabulary
- maintains social connections

Answer 177

Animal communication

Question 178

____________
- positive feelings held toward another & desire to be with another

Answer 178

Attraction

Question 179

____________
- behavior that threatens or causes physical and emotional harm
- verbal, physical, & psychological
- instrumental (achieve goal) & hostile (response to provocation)

Answer 179

Aggression

Question 180

____________
- extended long term bond between individuals
- feel need for being with each other
- separation results in anxiety

Answer 180

Attachment

Question 181

____________
- acting to benefit another regardless of consequences to self

Answer 181

Alturism

Question 182

____________
- network of family, friends, health care providers, & community resources that are essential to one’s physical and emotional health

Answer 182

Social support

Question 183

3 types of support :
__________, __________, & __________

Answer 183

Emotional, Material, & Appraisal

Question 184

____________
- conservative theoretical approach
- sees society as a harmoniously functioning whole with constituent parts working together to maintain societal equilibrium
- compares society to a living organism with its various parts functioning like biological systems to maintain society’s existence

Answer 184

Functionalism

Question 185

____________ theory
- views society as composed of 2 competing categories of people (those with power & those without power)
- postulates that conflict in society is generated by the powerful working to maintain their societal advantage while the powerless strive to acquire power
- unique among sociological paradigms in that it advocates for a sociologist’s active role in bringing about social equality

Answer 185

Conflict theory

Question 186

____________
- microlevel perspective focusing on interactions among individuals
- believes that the interactions among individuals shape society
- focuses on the symbols people use to interact with others & how these symbols are interpreted
- people are considered active participants in interactions

Answer 186

symbolic interactionalism

Question 187

____________
- believes that social reality is defined by the way individuals relate to that reality rather than by objective criteria (social construction of reality)
- EX: a coins meaning is defined by individuals agreeing that the coin has worth rather than by the coins metallic value

Answer 187

Social constructionism

Question 188

____________
- learned behaviors shared by a people

Answer 188

Culture

Question 189

____________ Culture
- physical objects created by society’s members

Answer 189

Material Culture

Question 190

____________ Culture
- nonmaterial elements of culture
- symbols, language, values, beliefs, norms, & rituals

Answer 190

Symbolic Culture

Question 191

____________
- objects, images, sounds, or actions that are associated with a meaning

Answer 191

Symbols

Question 192

____________
- a system of symbols that convey highly complex meanings

Answer 192

Language

Question 193

____________
- broad standards that define qualities important to a society

Answer 193

Values

Question 194

____________
- specific shared notions about what is true or false

Answer 194

Beliefs

Question 195

____________
- rules & regulations that guide the behaviors of society’s members

Answer 195

Norms

Question 196

____________
- deal with moral issues & have strong societal support

Answer 196

Mores

Question 197

____________
- have weaker support & carry less severe punishments for violators

Answer 197

Folkways

Question 198

____________
- established patterns of formal behavior conducted on special occasions

Answer 198

Rituals

Question 199

____________
- segments of society that share a set of value different from those of the wider society
- the most significant are based on factors like ethnicity, national origin, religion, or language
- others are based on interests or hobbies

Answer 199

Subcultures

Question 200

____________
- the process by which members of a subculture take on the characteristics of the dominant culture
- can help members of a subculture avoid prejudice & discrimination but at the cost of losing their cultural heritage & self-esteem

Answer 200

Assimilation

Question 201

____________
- an appreciation of cultural diversity
- reduces the pressure for members of subcultures to assimilate

Answer 201

Multiculturalism

Question 202

____________
- the life long process through which cultural values, beliefs, & norms are transmitted across generations

Answer 202

Socialization

Question 203

Agents of ____________
- Family, School, Peer group, Mass media, & Workplace

Answer 203

Agents of socialization

Question 204

____________
- performing actions that depart from & violate cultural norms
- labeling behavior or person as deviant affirms society’s values & norms

Answer 204

Deviance

Question 205

Punishments for violating cultural norms are mechanisms for ____________ (the way in which society attempts to regulate the behaviors of its members)

Answer 205

social control

Question 206

____________
- a strongly negative label that society associates with an individual
- acquired when deviant behavior is persistent
- changes the individuals self-concept & social identity
- stigmatized people may internalize negative label & become socially isolated

Answer 206

Stigma

Question 207

____________
- the process by which individuals modify their behavior in direct response to the influence of another person or group

Answer 207

Conformity

Question 208

____________ social influence
- individual’s behavior, appearance, beliefs, and/or values are influenced by the desire to act like others & be accepted
- most pronounced when group is important to individual (strength), when group is close in space & time (immediacy), or when there is a large number of people in the group (number)

Answer 208

Normative social influence

Question 209

____________ social influence
- individual is unsure how to act in a particular situation
- relies on info gained by observing others in similar situations

Answer 209

Informational social influence

Question 210

____________
- compliance with other people’s demands
- driven by a need to please others
- most people have been socialized to defer to authorities, experts, or other people in power positions to avoid punishment, embarrassment, or rejection

Answer 210

Obedience

Question 211

____________
- major areas of social life that meet or attempt to meet the needs of society’s members

Answer 211

Social institutions

Question 212

____________
- a social institution that transfers society’s knowledge to its members
- the quality received by a person is affected by factors such as class, race, ethnicity, & gender

Answer 212

Education

Question 213

_______ & _______ institutions
- serve to maintain the health & well-being of the members of a society
- different societies set different standard for acceptable health

Answer 213

Health & medical institutions

Question 214

The primary focus of _________ is meeting spiritual needs of society’s members

Answer 214

religion

Question 215

___________ separates the sacred from the profane (ordinary or mundane)

Answer 215

Religion

Question 216

The __________ is considered the basic unit of society

Answer 216

Family

Question 217

The __________ family plays a greater role in pre-industrialized societies than in industrialized ones
“includes parents, children, & kin”

Answer 217

extended family

Question 218

The __________ family plays a greater role in industrialized societies
- functionalists see the family as the backbone of society because of the family’s socialization & supportive functions
- conflict theory sees the family as the agent for perpetuating class, race, ethnic, & gender inequality
“1 or 2 parents & the children”

Answer 218

Nuclear Family

Question 219

____________
- functions to assign authority & guide society as a whole

Answer 219

Government

Question 220

The __________ serves to regulate the production, distribution, & consumption of society’s goods/services

Answer 220

economy

Question 221

True or False
Government & economy are closely related and particular forms of government ten to coexist with specific economic systems (monarchy with feudalism, democracy with capitalism, & communism with socialism)

Answer 221

True

Question 222

____________
- the exchange of actions among people in a society

Answer 222

Social interaction

Question 223

____________
- the social position that a person holds in a society

Answer 223

Status

Question 224

____________
- includes all of the status positions held by a particular person (professor bing middle aged being a parent & a coach)

Answer 224

Status set

Question 225

____________
- includes status that is given to a person at birth or later in life through little or no effort by that person

Answer 225

Ascribed status

Question 226

____________
- is voluntarily acquired through a person’s effort or lack of effort
- also a person’s occupation

Answer 226

Achieved status

Question 227

____________
- the expected behavior that is attached to a status

Answer 227

Role

Question 228

____________
- the various roles of a single status

Answer 228

role set

Question 229

____________
- the conflict between roles of a single status

Answer 229

role strain

Question 230

____________
- tension between roles of different statuses

Answer 230

role conflict

Question 231

____________
- 2 or more people who interact with & feel connected to each other

Answer 231

Social group

Question 232

____________ group
- characterized by close personal relationships
- interactions are ends in themselves & not means to another end (ex: family or peer group)

Answer 232

Primary group

Question 233

____________ group
- large group composed of impersonal relationships
- centered around a focused activity
- interactions are guided toward specific goals (ex: students in the same school & coworkers at a company)

Answer 233

Secondary group

Question 234

____________
- loose associations of people that often comprise many people over great distances

Answer 234

Network

Question 235

____________
- large secondary groups characterized by bureaucracy

Answer 235

Organizations

Question 236

____________
- model of organizations emphasizing rationality, hierarchy, specialization of skills, & impersonal rules and regulations

Answer 236

Bureaucracy

Question 237

____________
- statistical study of the characteristics of human populations
- ex: age, sex, race, immigrants, & ethnicity

Answer 237

Demography

Question 238

_________________ theory
- links societal transitions to technological changes
- pre-industrialization, industrialization, & post-industrialization

Answer 238

Demographic transition theory

Question 239

____________
- populations remain constant
- high birth rates (need for labor) & high death rates (low living standards)

Answer 239

Pre-industrialization

Question 240

____________
- population explosion
- decreased death rates (higher living standards) & birth rates remain high
- as it matures the birth & death rates fall due to medical advancements so only a steady growth in population

Answer 240

Industrialization

Question 241

____________
- slow population growth
- birth rates fall & death rates constant

Answer 241

Post-industrialization

Question 242

____________
- the number of births in a given population

Answer 242

Fertility

Question 243

____________
- the number of deaths in a given population

Answer 243

Mortality

Question 244

____________
- the movement of people ‘into’ a society’s land

Answer 244

Immigration

Question 245

____________
- the movement of people ‘out’ of a society’s land

Answer 245

Emigration

Question 246

____________
- collective push for social change or to maintain the status quo
- can culminate in war which lowers population due to fatalities & emigration

Answer 246

Social movement

Question 247

____________
- overall tendency for social processes to become increasingly more global & less territorial
- expected to expand in the foreseeable future

Answer 247

Globalization

Question 248

____________
- movement of people from rural areas to urban areas
- most advanced in developed countries but a strong trend in developing countries
- economics is affected by the excess of labor in the cities
- environment is affected by large paved land areas, lack of vegetation, & concentrated pollution from industry and transportation

Answer 248

Urbanization

Question 249

____________
- differences between layers of society distinguished by status, economics, power, & politics

Answer 249

Social stratification

Question 250

__________, __________, & __________ determine the extent to which people can maintain or improve their situation

Answer 250

Class, status, & power

Question 251

____________
- economic division between upper, middle, & lower income people

Answer 251

Class

Question 252

____________
- not necessarily based on wealth but on how others view one
- can be achieved by actions or through reputation
- in some societies it is primarily inherited

Answer 252

Status

Question 253

____________
- the ability to manipulate elements of society to one’s benefit
- some may achieve this without class standing or status, through their own actions

Answer 253

Power

Question 254

____________
- the cultural qualities that are valuable in improving social standing
- ex : education, intelligence, manner of dress, & manner of speech

Answer 254

Cultural Capital

Question 255

____________
- the social connections established by a person on which the person can draw to improve social standing

Answer 255

Social Capital

Question 256

____________
- the phenomenon in which social standing is preserved from one generation to the next
- both high & low standing are preserved through social reproduction
- responsible for the perpetuation of social inequality

Answer 256

Social reproduction

Question 257

____________
- the phenomenon in which some people have access to certain societal benefits through ascribed characteristics such as gender, race, & age
- granted through the values of others rather than earned
- people who benefit through their own actions & may not understand why others without it have not

Answer 257

Privilege

Question 258

____________
- the respect granted to someone because of their status, class, or power
- may or may not correlate with a person’s actions or attributes

Answer 258

Prestige

Question 259

True or False
Analyses of intersections with race, gender, & age reveal that the dynamics that result in class, power, & status in a society do not apply in the same way to all people

Answer 259

True

Question 260

____________
- the ability to move from 1 class or status to another
- can be downward or upward
- may or may not reflect a particular person’s abilities & skills

Answer 260

Social mobility

Question 261

____________
- changes in status that take place from 1 generation to the next
- can be improved by programs that support young children of lower-class families

Answer 261

Intergenerational mobility

Question 262

____________
- changes in status that occur within 1 generation
- correlated with an individual’s efforts & support programs aimed at adults
- legislation can support it by removing discriminatory laws

Answer 262

Intragenerational mobility

Question 263

____________
- improved status

Answer 263

Upward mobility

Question 264

____________
- decreased status
- a pervasive pattern of downward mobility for a group of people indicates that significant negative societal forces are acting on that group

Answer 264

Downward mobility

Question 265

____________
- the belief that people should benefit in proportion to their merits (abilities, skills, productivity, intelligence, & talent)
- stands in opposition to the belief that certain people are entitled to power or status by virtue of belonging to certain groups or heredity)
- favors upward mobility of oppressed groups (although members of those groups may need support to develop merits)
- discrimination prevents people from access to developing merits

Answer 265

Meritocracy

Question 266

True or False
Few if any societies can avoid having an impoverished class (affects the quality of life of middle & upper-class people)

Answer 266

True

Question 267

____________
- lack of basic necessities of life (food, clothing, shelter, & health care)

Answer 267

Absolute poverty

Question 268

____________
- lack of material wealth in relation to the average material wealth in a given society
- people may have basic necessities but cannot live as well as other in the society

Answer 268

Relative poverty

Question 269

____________
- the process by which certain groups are excluded from access to goods or services available to others
- keeps certain groups separate from mainstream society (segregation)
- simultaneously forces those groups into their own closed society (isolation)

Answer 269

Social exclusion

Question 270

____________ discrimination
- acts of discrimination committed by individuals

Answer 270

individual discrimination

Question 271

____________ discrimination
- discrimination built into the structure of many institutions including governmental, economic, religious, & educational institutional
- difficult to exchange because of inflexibility of institutional structures

Answer 271

Institutional discrimination

Question 272

____________
- discriminatory access to products/services based on location
- groups kept physically isolated by social exclusion may not have access to resources that people living in mainstream communities have

Answer 272

Spatial inequality

Question 273

____________
- certain groups are restricted in the areas in which they may live
- in the US, this occurs primarily because of discriminatory housing practices on the part of property owners

Answer 273

Residential segregation

Question 274

Segregated neighborhoods may not have the power to protect themselves from __________

Answer 274

pollution (environmental inequality)

Question 275

____________
- entire regions of the world lack adequate access to education, employment, health care, & basic necessities

Answer 275

Global inequalities

Question 276

____________
- primarily due to effects of discrimination & resulting lower socioeconomic status
- not due to racial characteristics
- significant differences among different racial groups in incidence of obesity, diabetes, stroke, heart disease, & cancer

Answer 276

Racial health disparities

Question 277

____________
- women tend to live longer than men
- women have less access to health care
- men are more likely to suffer from accidents & violence

Answer 277

Gender health disparities

Question 278

____________
- are related to socioeconomic status
- upper class has more & faster access to health care and better heath education

Answer 278

Class health disparities

Question 279

True or false
The same forces that create health disparities also affect access to health care

Answer 279

True

Question 280

True or False
A woman’s access to health care correlates to some extent with the attitudes of her family & community (more restrictive views of women’s roles may reduce access to health care & women may be less able to afford health care because of unequal income)

Answer 280

True