PSYCH/SOCIO MCAT

Question 1

define self concept

Answer 1

how someone thinks about/percervies/evaluates themeselves. aka self-awarness

Question 2

what are the two parts of self concept?

Answer 2

existential self and categorical self

Question 3

what are the two components of existential self?

Answer 3

separate and distinct

Question 4

if someone say they are tired, is this an example of self concept?

Answer 4

no! the state of being tired is TEMPORARY, but self-concept is consistent or CONSTANT!!!

Question 5

give an example that shows how a child is aware that they exist as distinct entities?

Answer 5

for example, when a child sees toys handing from their bed, they immediately touch them because they release that those are separate and distinct from them. ie. they are not that object. this is what self concept is all about.

Question 6

when a child releases they are separate but still exist in the world with others is known as?

Answer 6

categorical self

Question 7

how is categorical self different from existential self?

Answer 7

categorical self is when the child start to realize they are separate and belong to different categories such as gender and age, but even tho they are separate they still exist!

Question 8

list in order, the categories that develop or someone starts to mention from young to older age

Answer 8

a child first starts to realize they fall under two categories which as age and gender. we hear them say “im a girl” or “im 3 years old” as they grow older, they start to realize they also fall under the category of skills and size. eventually, as they grow more they start to introduce themselves by perhaps mentioning their careers, they start making comparisons and define their traits

Question 9

what is the humanistic theory?

Answer 9

this was by Carl Rogers and he said that self-concept can be divided into 3 different components:
self image
self esteem/self worth
ideal-self

Question 10

what does incongruity mean?

Answer 10

this is when the ideal self and real self do not match!

Question 11

how is a positive self concept formed?

Answer 11

when the ideal self and real self MATCH

Question 12

what is the social identity theory?

Answer 12

it consists of 2 parts.
personal identity and social identity.

personal identity describes the things to each person such as personality traits. while social identity describe the groups we belong to in our community (such as catholic)

Question 13

explain the mental process on how we categorize ourselves

Answer 13

step 1: humans categorize themselves and others without really realizing it. For example, when they see a person they directly say “they are asian” so they are putting them under a specific category and this gives them an IDEA about the person

step 2: identifications which is when humans start to adopt identity of the group, we see or categorize ourselves as belonging or behaving like our category. Emotional significance to identification (our self-esteem), start to become bound with this group

step 3: social comparison. we are always comparing ourselves to others (without even realizing it) to mantain our self esteem.

Question 14

why do we compare ourselves to others?

Answer 14

to maintain self-esteem

Question 15

how do we make pre-judgments about other people?

Answer 15

by putting them into a specific category

Question 16

define self-esteem

Answer 16

the respect someone has for themselves.

Question 17

define self-efficacy

Answer 17

someone’s belief and their ability to succeed in a specific situation.

Question 18

which is more specific, self esteem or efficacy?

Answer 18

self efficacy

Question 19

what plays an important role on how goals, tasks, and challenges are approached?

Answer 19

self efficacy

Question 20

what are the two types of self efficacy?

Answer 20

strong and weak

Question 21

define strong self efficacy

Answer 21

people with STRONG self efficacy recover quickly from setbacks, and have strong or deep interest, strong sensation of commitment to activities and enjoy challenging tasks

Question 22

define people with weak sense of self efficacy

Answer 22

people with weak sense of self efficacy focus on personal FAILURES or the negative outcomes, and avoid challenging tasks, quickly lose confidence in personal abilities and believe they lack the ability to handle difficult tasks and situations.

Question 23

list the four sources to determine if a person has strong or weak self efficacy

Answer 23

mastery of experience
social modelling
social persuasion
psychological responses

Question 24

define each of the following sources:
mastery of experience
social modelling
social persuasion
psychological responses

Answer 24

mastery of experience: performing a task successfully which will increase self efficacy

social modelling: when we see people similar to ourselves simply completing tasks increases our efficacy by saying to ourselves “oh i can also do this easily then”

social persuasion: getting verbal encouragement by others which gives us more believes in ourselves and overcome any self doubt

psychological responses: when someone becomes extremely nervous before publicing speaking (ie.), they might develop weak self efficacy, but when they learn how to minimize their stress, they will maximize thier self efficacy.

Question 25

can a person with LOW self-esteem have high self-efficacy? or vice versa?

Answer 25

yes!!! a person with LOW self-esteem can INDEED have HIGH self efficacy, and the opposite is also true

Question 26

give an example of "a person with LOW self-esteem can INDEED have HIGH self efficacy"

Answer 26

perfectionists have low self esteem and high sense of self efficacy because they are overly critical and negative about themselves but still see themselves capable of doing tasks. they are competent at tasks with clear instructions but lose their confidence when the instructions are not clear even tho they belong themselves to the perfectionist category.

Question 27

define locus of control

Answer 27

the extent to which people perceive they have control over events in their lives

Question 28

what are the two type locus control. explain each with examples

Answer 28

internal: this is when the person believes he or she can influence the event/outcomes. For example, if they do bad on a test they say "oh i did bad because I DID NOT STUDY PROPERLY". as a result, they tend to be happier and less stressed/depressed. external: attribute events to environmental events/causes. For example, if they did bad on a test they say "oh i did bad on the test BECAUSE THE TEACHER'S QUESTIONS WERE HARD"

Question 29

consider the following scenario: Elissar did her MCAT test, and after she got her results back she said "OMG I studied so hard and this is the score i deserve" she starts dancing. Is this external or internal locus control

Answer 29

this is internal locus of control because she believes she was able to influence this event of getting high scores by studying so hard

Question 30

consider the following scenario: Elissar did her MCAT test, and after she got her results back she said "HAHA i did so well because they centre wrote too easy questions, and everyone did average". Is this external or internal locus control

Answer 30

external, she is not thinking of herself as the reason behind this event (ie. studied hard), but instead, thinks of environmental effects.

Question 31

define development from a sociological point of view.

Answer 31

series of age related changes that happen through the course of lifespan. People pass through stages in A SPECIFIC STAGES, and we end up develop capacities through these stages of development.

Question 32

Who is freud?

Answer 32

proposed the PSYCHOSEXUAL theory of development, and believed early CHILDHOOD was the most important age or period which personality develops.

Question 33

what happens when specific issues arise during one of the 5 stages that freud described, and is not resolved before moving to the next stage?

Answer 33

fixation occurs!!

Question 34

who is Erikson?

Answer 34

he came up with psychosocial development theory, and proposed that personality/identity development occurs through ones's entire lifespan.

Question 35

what did Erikson believe that each stage of development depend on?

Answer 35

depends on conflict, and success/failure at each stage will affect the overall functioning of theory.

Question 36

Who is Vygostky?

Answer 36

He developed the sociocultural cognitive development theory. He believed that children learn ACTIVELY through HAND ON processes, and suggests that parents or caregivers or cultural beliefs/language/attitudes are all responsible for development of higher function of learning.

Question 37

what is important for the development of cognition according to Vgygostky?

Answer 37

social interactions

Question 38

who is Kohlberg?

Answer 38

he developed the moral development theory. focused on moral reasonings and differences between right and wrong. He believes that moral reasoning develops through level of cognitive development and people pass three stages of development (2 stages within each of the three stages).

Question 39

which ones are similar in their findings?

Answer 39

Freud and Erikson since they focused on personality. Vygostky and Kohlberg focused on cognitive development.

Question 40

list the stages of development according to Freud. IN ORDER!

Answer 40

oral stage Anal stage Phallic stage Latent stage Genital stage

Question 41

define libido

Answer 41

a natural energy source that fuels mechanisms of mind

Question 42

what happens when libido is fixed?

Answer 42

it can have a lifelong effect well into adulthood because Freud's theory stresses the importance of childhood

Question 43

what are the important years for development according to freud?

Answer 43

the FIRST five years

Question 44

list the body parts for each stage of development according to freud where fixation of energy can occur.

Answer 44

Oral: mouth Anal: anus Phallic: genital Latent: NONE Genital: genital

Question 45

explain the oral stage

Answer 45

age: 0-1 year main focus: libido centred around the baby's mouth (ie. sucking reflect) development: sense of trust and comfort (because baby is completely DEPENDENT) - ie. major development is feeding. fixation: issues with dependency or aggression. when they grow they smoke, bite their nails or overeat.

Question 46

explain the anal stage

Answer 46

age: 1-3 years main focus: anus such as toilet training development: control and independency where child feels positive outcomes and helps them become productive fixation: problems with orderliness and messiness because parents, for example, their parents did not teach them how to go to the bathroom by themselves.

Question 47

explain the phallic stage

Answer 47

age: 3-6 years main focus: gentile, where they discover the difference between males and females. development: oedipus complex (boys view their fathers as rivals for mother's affection, and want to possess the mother and replace the father), and Electra complex (the equivalent for young girls to their fathers). The child starts to understand and develop similar characteristics as same sex parent. fixation: cause sexual dysfunction if not resolved.

Question 48

explain the latent stage

Answer 48

age: 6-12 age main focus: no focus on libido, it is just a period of exploration. While libido is still present, it is directed into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions. development: social and communication skills. When they enter school, and mainly interact and play with children with the same gender fixation: not really any that can contribute into adult development

Question 49

what does "intellectual pursuits" mean?

Answer 49

actions or skills that increase knowledge. such as going to college and learn new things

Question 50

explain the gentile stage

Answer 50

age: 12+ year main focus: gentile, and the focus on needs of others development: strong sexual interests fixation: nothing since this is the last stage.

Question 51

Freud and Erikson both focus on personality, but there is still a major difference in their understanding of development, what is this difference?

Answer 51

Erickson believes that there is a plenty of room for growth throughout one's life NOT JUST CHILDHOOD

Question 52

what was Erickson's thoery was mainly based on?

Answer 52

culture and society

Question 53

Freud talked about how if fixation occurs at a specific stage, it can lead to issues during development. Erikson mentioned a similar idea, what was it?

Answer 53

He assumed that a CRISIS can occur at each stage of development between needs of individual and society.

Question 54

what are virtues in respect with Erikson's theory?

Answer 54

characteristic strengths that can be used by ego to resolve future conflicts.

Question 55

explain stage 1 in Erikson's theory

Answer 55

age: 1 year crisis: trust. vs. mistrust. virtue: hope - outcome: fear and mistrust

Question 56

explain stage 2 in Erkison's theory.

Answer 56

age: 2 years crisis: autonomy vs. doubt (shame). they start to gain some sense of independence and it is critical that parents allow them to do so rather than helping them with everything, but also protect the child when they fail while doing a task Virtue: own personal will (sense of independence) - outcome: child feels in inadequent in their ability to survive since parents were too controlling, and the child might feel shame.

Question 57

what does autonomy mean according to Erickson?

Answer 57

independence

Question 58

explain stage 3 of Erickson's development

Answer 58

age: 305 years crisis: initiative vs. guilt. children feel secure in their ability to lead others and play (so ask questions) virtue: sense of purpose in what they do and choices they make - outcome: if the tendency to ask questions is controlled, it can develop into guilt as if they're annoying other people and act more as a FOLLOWER. This can inhibit their creativity and the outcome is INADEQUACY

Question 59

Explain stage 4 of Erickson's theory

Answer 59

age: 6-12 years crisis: industry vs. inferiority. Teachers here have the biggest impact. virtue: competence. The child will gain greater self esteem and try to win approval from others (competence, will feel industrious) - outcome: INFERIORITY. if initiative is restricted, child feels inferior (don't have competence). However, some failure is necessary so a child has modesty.

Question 60

what does feel industrious mean?

Answer 60

that they work so so hard

Question 61

what is meant by "failure is necessary so a child has modesty. "

Answer 61

modesty here means that a person shouldn't be TOOO proud of their achievements.

Question 62

explain stage 5 of Erickson's theory

Answer 62

age: 12-20 crisis: identity vs. role confusion. the child has to learn the rules he needs to occupy as an adult so may re-examine identity to figure out who they are. Virtue: fidelity - outcome: role confusion (I don't know what i want to become when i grow up).

Question 63

what does "fidelity" mean?

Answer 63

seeing oneself as unique

Question 64

explain stage 6 in Erickson's Theory.

Answer 64

age: 20-40 crisis: intimacy vs. isolation. they try to find love and relationships Virtue: completion leads to comfortable relationships and love - outcome: loneliness or depression or can't form relationship

Question 65

explain stage 7 in Erickson's theory

Answer 65

age: 40-65 crisis: generatively vs. stagnation. Here the person is settled down and make families the main focus or the centre of their lives. virtue: care, and the feeling of giving back through raising children, or at work. -outcome: they feel stagnation and unproductive

Question 66

what does stagnation mean?

Answer 66

feeling stuck or not progressing

Question 67

explain stage 8 of Erickson's theory

Answer 67

age: 65+ crisis: integrity vs. despair. slowing in productivity, and people here contemplate on lives, reminisce, and may feel guilty of their past or unaccomplished activities. virtue: wisdom (they look back on life with sense of closure and completeness and accept death without fear. - outcome: despair or dissatisfaction upon death

Question 68

what does rebellion mean?

Answer 68

against authority

Question 69

what are the elementary mental functions according to Vygostsky?

Answer 69

attention sensation perception memory

Question 70

the four elementary mental functions in Vygostsky's development were developed into a more sophoisticated and mental prcesses that we call?

Answer 70

higher mental functions

Question 71

what are higher mental functions characterized by?

Answer 71

independent learning and thinking but involved a tutor at first

Question 72

what promotes cognitive ability for development?

Answer 72

cooperative and collaborative dialogue from a more knowledgeable person (ie. tutor)

Question 73

what does MKO stand for? and what does it mean?

Answer 73

more knowledgeable other a person with a better understanding than the learner

Question 74

what leads to learning and higher mental functions?

Answer 74

MKO + interaction with learner

Question 75

What does zone of proximal development refer to?

Answer 75

the part where the most sensitive instructions or guidelines should be given. between the ability of able and not able to do something (just needed some instructions).

Question 76

why does Vygotsky mention language?

Answer 76

according to him, this is the main means by which adults transmit info to children, and is a powerful tool of intellectual adaptation. According to him, language also leads to thought (inner speech)

Question 77

what does private speech mean?

Answer 77

internal speech, when children speak out loud to themselves

Question 78

what does Vygotsky think of internal speech?

Answer 78

He sees it as a way children plan activities that aid in their development

Question 79

what are the three levels of moral reasoning according to Kholberg

Answer 79

pre-conventional conventional post conventional

Question 80

explain the pre-conventional level.

Answer 80

pre-adolescent 1: obedience vs punishment - reasoning is based on physical consequences of actions, so obeying the rules is a means to AVOID PUNISHMENT age: children 2: individualism and exchange - children recognize that there is not only one POV and that different people have different POVS.

Question 81

explain the conventional level

Answer 81

good boy and good girl 3: societal norms/acceptance. Authority is internalized but NOT QUESTIONED and reasoning is based on grpup person belongs. Someone is good to be seen in a good image in front of others 4: Law and order/law abidance to maintain social order and child is aware here of wider roles of society obeying laws. (TO FOLLOW RULES).

Question 82

explain post conventional level

Answer 82

moral 5: social contract where a person becomes aware that even though rules and laws exist for greater good, there are times this law works against interest of particular people. So people think that laws are must be broken to save someone's life. 6: universal ethical principle: where people develop their own set of moral guidelines that might not be WITH the law. They don't care about the rules of law and don't mind facing consequences.

Question 83

Nelson Mandela was known for his advocacy for human rights and his belief in the inherent dignity of all individuals, regardless of race. Under which level of Kohlberg does he fall?

Answer 83

post conventional (universal ethical principle)

Question 84

what does imitation mean?

Answer 84

simply (copying someone else), a type of individual social influence where we begin to understand that there IS a difference between others and self

Question 85

what does mirror neurone mean? where are they found?

Answer 85

when one fires another fires, so when we observe the same action performed by another person. They are found in the areas of the brain that are motor (parietal lobe), premoter cortex (frontal lobe) and somatossensory cortex (parietal lobe)

Question 86

what are social norms?

Answer 86

the accepted standards of behaviour of a social group.

Question 87

why are norms important?

Answer 87

they provide order in society and we use it to guid and direct our behaviour as appropriate.

Question 88

what does reference group mean?

Answer 88

the group to which people refer in evaluating themselves. Seek advice from, or get approval from

Question 89

given an example of a reference group

Answer 89

a woman going to a feminism organization to ask them if she should change her name after marriage

Question 90

what does culture and socialization topic refer to?

Answer 90

importance contributions of society to our personal development, emphasizes interaction between the people and culture in which we live in.

Question 91

how are charles cooley and george hebert mead releated? how are they different?

Answer 91

similar: both thought others could play a significant role in how we view ourselves, however, they differed in how they thought this would happen differ: cooley thought EVERYONE a person interacts with in a lifetime influences thier identity. While Mead thought ONLY CERTAIN people can and ONLY IN CERTAIN PERIODS IN LIFE!

Question 92

what is social behaviourism by Mead?

Answer 92

the mind and self emerge through the process of communication with others (beginning of symbolic interactionism)

Question 93

what are the stages of how our belief on how others perceive us is more important?

Answer 93

Prepatory stage Play stage Game stage

Question 94

explain the Prepatory stage

Answer 94

interaction through imitation, and as they grow older they focus more on communication with others instead of simple imitation and get practice using symbols. THEY CANNOT TAKE PERSPECTIVE OF OTHERS

Question 95

Explain the play stage

Answer 95

children are more aware of social relationships, reflected in children's ability to pretend play as other like as doctors. MENTALLY ASSUMING PERSPECTIVE OF OTHERS AND ACTING BASED ON THIER PERCEIVED POINT OF VIEW. they are focused on ROLE TAKING. Children here consider the attitudes and beliefs of people CLOSEST to them. NO LONGER MIMMICKING

Question 96

explain the game stage

Answer 96

children start to understand the attitudes and beliefs and even behabiours of generalized other (society as a whole). Children start to realize that people have other rules (ie. NOT JUST TEACHERS could be mothers too at the same time). They still ONLY care about reactions of significant others (ie. mom, dad, teacher, or bsf).

Question 97

what do I and Me mean in Mead's theory? given a simple example

Answer 97

Me: social self - society's view, interaction with others and social environment I: response to the me, individual identity stepping in and our response to how society thinks Me: people in US go from high school DIRECTLY to collage. I wonders if this is best, if maybe it would be better to work for few years before.

Question 98

define socialization

Answer 98

descirbe the process by which people learn the attitudes, behaviours and values expected by their culture/community

Question 99

what does socialization by Cooly shapes?

Answer 99

our self image and self concept

Question 100

what does the looking glass self mean?

Answer 100

the idea that a person s sense of self develops from interpersonal interactions with others (EVERYONE)

Question 101

how does the thought in the "looking glass self" happen?

Answer 101

1. how do i appear to others 2. what must others think of me 3. revise how we think about ourselves based on correct OR incorrect perception on other evaluations.

Question 102

what does the CRITICAL aspect of this the looking glass self believe?

Answer 102

believed that we are NOT actually being influenced by opinions of others but what we IMAGINE the options of others TO BE! ACTING ON INCORRECT PERCEPTION

Question 103

from a social scientist perspective, define identity.

Answer 103

the individual components of our self concept related to the groups to which we belong

Question 104

how are identity and self concept related?

Answer 104

we have one self concept but multiple identities. Identities can SUM UP to create our self concept

Question 105

list the types of identity that the MCAT only focuses on

Answer 105

Gender Ethnic and National

Question 106

define androgyny

Answer 106

the state of being simultaneougly very masculine and very feminine

Question 107

what does undifferentiated mean when discussing gender identity?

Answer 107

those who achieve low scores on both scales of male and female

Question 108

Samoans use the word fa'afafine, what are they referring to?

Answer 108

androgynous but phenotypically male individuals

Question 109

define ethnic identity

Answer 109

refers to the part of one's identity associated with membership in a particular racial/ethnic group

Question 110

when they did an experiment where they presented children with a black and a white doll, and most children preferred the white doll, what does this tell else in regards to ethnic identity?

Answer 110

highlights the negative effects of racism and underrepresented group status on the self concept of back children at that time.

Question 111

define nationality

Answer 111

based on political borders and national identity is the result of shared history, media cuisine, and national symbols

Question 112

what is gender dysphoria?

Answer 112

given only to individuals for whom gender identity causes significant psychological stress

Question 113

how are our identities organized?

Answer 113

they are organized according to heirarchy of salience. We let situations dictat which identity holds the most importance for us at any given moment.

Question 114

the more salient the identity, the _______

Answer 114

the more we conform to the role expectations of the identities.

Question 115

how is salience determined?

Answer 115

the amount of work we have invested into the identity, the rewards and gratification associated with the identity, and the amount of self esteem we have associated with the identity.

Question 116

what is self discreoancy theory?

Answer 116

maintains that each of us has three selves and that perceived differences between theses selves lead to negative feelings.

Question 117

what makes up our actual self?

Answer 117

self concept

Question 118

what leads to higher self-esteem or self worth?

Answer 118

when actual self, ought self and ideal self are VERY CLOSE

Question 119

what is learned helplessness?

Answer 119

an individual can develop a perceived lack of control over the outcome of a situation

Question 120

are people with LOW self esteem critical of themselves? what about of others?

Answer 120

they are critical of themselves but NOT OTHERS because they believe people will ONLY accept them if they are successful

Question 121

define psychoanalytic or psychidynamic theories of peronality

Answer 121

contain some of the most widely varying perspectives on behaviour, but they all have in common the assumption of unconscious internal states that motivate the overt actions of individuals and determine personality

Question 122

what do overt actions mean?

Answer 122

open and unhidden acts

Question 123

list the major entities according to freud

Answer 123

id ego superego

Question 124

explain id

Answer 124

consists of all the basic, primal, inborn urges to survive and reproduce.

Question 125

how does the id function

Answer 125

it functions according to the pleasure principle in which the aim is to achieve immediate gratification to relieve any pent-up tension

Question 126

what is the primary process when talking about id?

Answer 126

the Id's repsonse to frustration based on the pleasure principle (obtain satasification NOW and not later)

Question 127

what is wish fullfillment?

Answer 127

mental imagery such as daydreaming or fantasy that fulfills this need for satisfaction

Question 128

explain the ego according to freud

Answer 128

operates according to the reality principle taking into objective reality as it guide or inhibits the activity of the id and this id's pleasure principle.

Question 129

what is the guidence of ego to id referred to? explain

Answer 129

secondary process

Question 130

when you get stuck in traffic, you get a thought of honking at everyone, then you get a thought that makes you calm down and act in wisdom. which thought is the id and which is the ego?

Answer 130

honking: id wisdom: ego

Question 131

explain superego

Answer 131

peronality's perfectionist, judging our actions and responding with pride at our accomplishments and guilt at our failure

Question 132

subtypes of superego. explain each

Answer 132

conscience: collection of the improper actions for which a child is punished. ego ideal: the proper actions for which a child is rewarded.

Question 133

according to freud, how do we access the id, ego and superego

Answer 133

through three different categories. thought that we aren't aware of (preconscious) thoughts that have been repressed (unconscious) thought to which we have conscious access

Question 133

subconscious

Answer 133

to refer to Freud's unconscious mind

Question 134

what is instinct to Freud?

Answer 134

an innate psychological representation of a biological need

Question 135

types of instinct according to freud? explain

Answer 135

life: AKA Eros, promote individual's quest for survival through thirst, hunger, and sexual needs. death: AKA thanatos, represent an unconscious wish for death and destruction

Question 136

how does the ego recourse for relieving anxiety caused by the clash of the id and superego?

Answer 136

through defense mechanisms

Question 137

list all the defense mechanisms

Answer 137

repression suppression regression reaction formation projection rationalization displacement sublimation

Question 138

define repression and give an example

Answer 138

unconsciously removing an idea or feeling from consciousness. ie. a person who survived six months in a concentration of cramp cannot recall anything about life during that time period. Forgetting due to a traumatic event.

Question 139

define suppression and give an example

Answer 139

consciously removing an idea or feeling from consciousness ie. a terminally ill cancer patient puts aside feelings of anxiety to enjoy family gathering "I'm not going to think about it right now"

Question 140

define regression and given an example

Answer 140

returning to an earlier stage of development. ie. a person speaks to a significant other in "baby talk" when relaying bad news. ie. returning to thumb sucking

Question 141

define reaction formation and give an example

Answer 141

an unacceptable impulse is transformed into its opposite ie. two coworkers fight all the time because they're actually very attracted to each other.

Question 142

define projection and give an example

Answer 142

attribution of wishes, desires, thoughts or emotions to someone else. ie. a person who has committed adultery is convinced the spouse is cheating, despite the lack of evidence. ie. a person is mad at their manager, but stay quiet at work and choose to project their anger at their siblings

Question 143

define rationalization and give an example

Answer 143

justification of attitudes, beliefs and behaviours a murderer who claims that, while killing is wrong, this particular victim deserved it

Question 144

define displacement and give an example

Answer 144

changing the target of emotion while the feelings are the same ie. when sent to their room as punishment, children begin to punch and kick their pillows

Question 145

define sublimation and give an example

Answer 145

channeling of unacceptable impulse in a socially acceptable direction ie. a boss who is attracted to an employee becomes that employee's mentor and adviser

Question 146

what did Carl Jung think of libido?

Answer 146

as a psychic energy

Question 147

how did Jung identify ego?

Answer 147

he identified ego as the conscious mind

Question 148

what are the divisions of unconsciousness according to Jung? define each

Answer 148

personal and collective consciousness personal unconsciousness which is similar to Freud's notion of the unconscious, and the collective unconsciousness which is a powerful system that is shared among all humans and considered to be a residue of the experiences of our early ancestors.

Question 149

meaning of archetypes

Answer 149

images invariably have an emotional element. they are underlying forms or concepts that give rise to archetypal images, which may differ somewhat between cultures

Question 150

define persona

Answer 150

likened to a mask we wear in public and is the part of our personality that we present to the world such as our identity

Question 151

how did Jung describe persona

Answer 151

as adaptive to our social interactions, emphasizing those qualities that improve our social standing and suppressing our other, less desirable qualities.

Question 152

anima vs animus

Answer 152

anima (feminine) and the animus (masculine) describe gender inappropriate qualities. ie. Feminine behaviour in a male (anima) and masculine behaviour in a female (animus)

Question 153

in Jung's theory what is anima and animus

Answer 153

anima is an man's inner woman and animus is woman's inner man

Question 154

define shadow archetype

Answer 154

responsible for the appearance of unpleasant and socially reprehensible thoughts, feelings, and actions experienced in the unconscious mind.

Question 155

what is self to Jung?

Answer 155

the point of intersection between the collective unconscious, the personal unconscious and the conscious mind. He believes that self thrives for UNITY

Question 156

how did Jung symbolize self?

Answer 156

as mandala which he sees a symbol of the universe in Buddhism and Hinduism. He saw it as the promoter of unity, balance and harmony between the conscious, personal unconscious and collective unconscious

Question 157

Jung developed a word association testing. explain this test

Answer 157

assess how unconscious elements may be influencing the conscious mind and thus the self. Ie. patients respond to a single word with the first word that comes to mind

Question 158

what would reveal the elements of the unconscious, according to jung

Answer 158

patients responses in combination with evaluating mood and speed of response.

Question 159

describe the dichotomies of personality according to Jung

Answer 159

Extravasation vs. introversion Sensing vs intuiting Thinking vs. feeling Judging vs. perceiving

Question 160

obtaining objective information about the world is known as _____ and working with the information abstractly is known as _____

Answer 160

obtaining objective information about the world is known as SENSING and working with the information abstractly is known as INTUITING

Question 161

What is MBTI?

Answer 161

Myers Briggs Type Inventory a classical personality test where each of the four dichotomies of personality according to Jung is labelled as a personality type

Question 162

what is Alfred Adler's theory?

Answer 162

focused on the immediate social imperatives of family and society and their effects on unconscious factors

Question 163

explain the inferiority complex by Alder

Answer 163

an individual's sense of incompleteness, imperfection, and inferiority both physically and socially

Question 164

what drives personality according to Alder?

Answer 164

striving for superiority

Question 165

define superiority

Answer 165

a belief that your abilities or accomplishments are somehow dramatically better than other people's

Question 166

define creative self according to Alder

Answer 166

the force by which individuals shape their uniqueness and establish their personality.

Question 167

define style of life according to Alder

Answer 167

represents manifestation of the creative self and describes a person's unique way of achieving superiority

Question 168

define fictional finalism according to Alder

Answer 168

the notion that individuals are motivated more by their expectations of the future than by past experiences.

Question 169

what does alder think of human goals based on?

Answer 169

subjective or fictional estimate of life's values rather than the objective data from the past.

Question 170

major differences between Freud, Jung, and Alder

Answer 170

Freud: behaviour is motivated by inborn instincts Jung: principal axiom is that a person's conduct is governed by inborn archetypes Alder assumed people are primarily motivated by striving for superiority

Question 171

Karen Horney was a student of Freud, did she agree with him? explain

Answer 171

no! she argued that personality is a result of interpersonal relationships, and adamantly disagreed with many of freud's assumptions about women such as penis envy.

Question 172

What did Karen Horney postulated?

Answer 172

individuals with neurotic personalities are governed by one of the ten neurotic needs.

Question 173

explain the neurotic needs

Answer 173

each is directed toward making life and interactions bearable. The need for affection and approval the need to exploit others the need for self sufficiency and independence

Question 174

When do the neurotic need become problematic according to Karen Horney?

Answer 174

if they fit into one of the following criteria: - they are disproportionate in intensity - they are indiscriminate in application - they are partially disregard reality - tendency to provoke intense anxiety.

Question 175

define basic anxiety according to Karen Horney

Answer 175

based on premise that children's early perception of self is important and stems their relationship with caregivers.

Question 176

define basic hostility according to Karen Horney

Answer 176

neglect and rejection cause anger which is known as basic hostility

Question 177

how do children overcome basic hostility or basic anxiety?

Answer 177

- moving toward people to obtain the goodwill of people who provide security - moving against people - moving away from people.

Question 178

what is objective theory

Answer 178

falls under the realm of psychodynamic theories of personality, it refers to the representation of caregivers based on subjective experiences during early infancy.

Question 179

what does the humanistic or phenomenological theorists focus on?

Answer 179

the value of individuals and tale a more person cantered approach.

Question 180

analyze the following from a humanistic and then from a psychoanalytical POV. Amira is a 22-year-old university student who has recently started feeling disconnected from her friends and uninterested in activities she once enjoyed. Despite her strong academic performance, she often feels like a failure and questions her self-worth. When her professor praises her work, she brushes it off, thinking she doesn’t deserve the compliment. Amira spends a lot of time alone, journaling and reflecting, but she often ends up criticizing herself rather than finding peace.

Answer 180

Humanistic Perspective Analysis From a humanistic standpoint, Amira is struggling with self-actualization and positive self-regard. Though she has external achievements, she lacks internal validation and acceptance of her own worth. Her disconnection may be a sign that her basic psychological needs — like love, belonging, and esteem (according to Maslow) — are unmet. A humanistic therapist would aim to help Amira reconnect with her authentic self, encouraging self-compassion and promoting a nonjudgmental environment where she can rebuild her self-esteem and find meaning in her experiences. Psychoanalytic Perspective Analysis From a psychoanalytic lens, Amira's behaviors may stem from unconscious conflicts or unresolved issues from childhood. Her inability to accept praise and her self-criticism could be driven by an overly harsh superego, internalized from early experiences or authority figures. The disconnection from others might reflect defense mechanisms, like withdrawal or repression, used to cope with deeper feelings of inadequacy or fear of rejection. A psychoanalytic approach would explore her early relationships, uncover repressed emotions, and interpret recurring patterns in her thoughts and behavior to bring unconscious material to the surface.

Question 181

explain Gestalt therapy

Answer 181

practitioners tend to take a holistic view of the self seeing each individual as a complete person rather than reducing the person to individual behaviours or drives.

Question 182

how do humanists see our personality?

Answer 182

as the result of the conscious feelings we have for ourselves as we attempt to attain our needs and goals

Question 183

Explain Lewin's Force Field Theory

Answer 183

he focused little on an individual's past or future, focusing instead on situations in the present.

Question 184

what did lewin's define field?

Answer 184

as one's current state of mind which was simply the sum of the forces (influences) on individual at that time.

Question 185

define peak experiences

Answer 185

profound and deeply moving experiences in person's life that have important and lasting effects on the individual

Question 186

what did George Kelly focused on in his personal construct psychology?

Answer 186

he thought of individuals as a scientist, a person who devises and tests predictions about the behaviour of significant people in the individuals life

Question 187

how does George kelly think of an anxious person?

Answer 187

someone who is having difficulty constructing and understanding the variables in the environment rather than someone who is a victim of inner conflicts (this is a psychoanalytic pov)

Question 188

what is psychotherapy according to George Kelly

Answer 188

the process of insight whereby people acquire new constructs that will allow them to successfully predict troublesome events.

Question 189

what did Carl Rogers believe?

Answer 189

he believed that people have the freedom to control their own behaviour, and are neither slaves to unconscious nor subjects of faulty learning.

Question 190

seeing people as slaves to the unconsciousness is the ______ POV, but seeing people as subjects of faulty learning is the ____ POV

Answer 190

seeing people as slaves to the unconsciousness is the psychoanalytic POV, but seeing people as subjects of faulty learning is the behavioursits POV

Question 191

what is unconditional positive regard according to rogers?

Answer 191

therapeutic technique by which the therapist accepts the client completely and expresses empathy in order to promote a positive therapeutic environment.

Question 192

define social congitive

Answer 192

focuses on how we interact with that environement

Question 193

reciprocal determinism

Answer 193

refers to the idea that our thoughts, feelings and behviours and even envrionment all interact with each other to determine our actions in a given situation

Question 194

token economies

Answer 194

often used in inpatient theraputic settings: positive behaviour is rewarded with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges, treates, or other reinforces.

Question 195

who are type theorists?

Answer 195

attempt to create taxonomy of personality types

Question 196

who are trait theorists?

Answer 196

prefer to describe individual personality as the sum of a person's characteristic behaviour

Question 197

what did the ancient Greeks think of personality types?

Answer 197

they advised that personality types are based on humors or body fluids, an imbalance of which could lead to various personality disorders.

Question 198

what do each of the following sybolize or correlate with according to the four humors? blood bile black bile phlegm

Answer 198

blood: sanguine: impulsive and charismatic bile: choleric: affressive and dominant black bile: melancholic: depressive and cautious phlegm: phlegmatic: relaxed and affectionate

Question 199

how did sheldon presume short, tall and people in between as?

Answer 199

short: jolly tall: high strung and aloof in between: strong and well adjusted

Question 200

type A vs B people

Answer 200

A: competitive and compulsive B: laid back and relaxed

Question 201

PEN model

Answer 201

Psychoticism is a measure of nonconformity or social deviance. Extravasation: a measure of tolerance for social interaction and stimulation Neuroticism: a measure of emotional arousal in stressful situations

Question 202

big fives

Answer 202

Openness Conscientiousness Extravasation Agreeableness Neuroticism

Question 203

define each: Openness Conscientiousness Extravasation Agreeableness Neuroticism

Answer 203

Openness: open to experience and willing to engage with the world and desire to try new things Conscientiousness: analogous to self control, and associated with impulse control if high, and spontaneity if low Extravasation: social interaction Agreeableness: degree to which people are concerned about mainting peace and harmony in interactions with others. Neuroticism: measure of emotional arousal in stressful sitatuations

Question 204

what are the basic types of traits according to Gordon Allport?

Answer 204

cardinal central seconday

Question 205

cardinal traits

Answer 205

traits around which people organize their lives

Question 206

central traits

Answer 206

represent major characterstics of the personality that are easy to infer

Question 207

secondary traits

Answer 207

other personal characteristics that are more limited in occurrence, aspects of one's personality only appears in close groups

Question 208

functional autonomy by allport? give an example

Answer 208

behaviour continues despite satisfaction of the drive that originally created the behaviour. ex: haunter keeps searching for food even after finding some.

Question 209

consider the following case: A 12-year-old student named Sam is caught cheating on a math test. When questioned, Sam says, "I didn’t want to fail and look stupid in front of my friends." how would Freud, Erickson, Vygotsky, Kohlberg, George Kelly, and Kurt Lewinsin view it?

Answer 209

1. Freud (Psychosexual Theory) View: Freud would likely interpret this behavior through unconscious motives. At 12, Sam is in the latency stage, where peer relationships and learning are central. The fear of humiliation ("look stupid") could signal ego struggling to balance id’s desire (pass the test) and superego’s morality (don’t cheat). The guilt Sam may feel is rooted in superego development. 2. Erikson (Psychosocial Theory) View: Sam is in the Industry vs. Inferiority stage (6–12 years). Cheating may indicate that Sam fears being seen as incompetent. Sam is trying to prove competence and earn peer approval. Failing may trigger feelings of inferiority, which could impact future confidence. 3. Vygotsky (Sociocultural Theory) View: Vygotsky would focus on social context and learning. Sam’s behavior reflects the influence of peer norms and possibly a lack of scaffolding or support from adults (teacher, parents). The behavior might be a sign that Sam needed help within his zone of proximal development (ZPD) but didn’t receive it. 4. Kohlberg (Moral Development) View: Sam is likely in Level 2: Conventional Morality, probably Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationships. Sam cheats to maintain peer acceptance — doing what seems "right" in the eyes of his social group. He may not fully grasp Stage 4’s law and order mindset yet (doing what's right because it's a rule). 5. George Kelly (Personal Construct Theory) View: Kelly would say Sam sees the world through personal constructs. Sam may define success as being "smart" and fears the label of being "stupid." His personal constructs might include: Smart = good, failure = humiliation. Cheating is a way to maintain a positive identity within this construct system. 6. Kurt Lewin (Field Theory) View: Lewin would explain Sam’s behavior using his B = f(P, E) formula (Behavior is a function of the Person and Environment). The psychological field (peers, classroom pressure, fear of embarrassment) shaped Sam’s actions. Cheating is a result of internal tension between self-expectation and environmental stressors.

Question 210

what is attribution theory?

Answer 210

describes how individuals infer the causes of other people's behaviour. how we explain the behaviours of others.

Question 211

According to Heider, what are the causes of attribution?

Answer 211

dispositional (internal) and situational (external)

Question 212

dispositional or internal. provide an example

Answer 212

attributions are those that relate to the person whose behaviour is being considered. ex: beliefs, attitudes, and personality characteristics

Question 213

situational or external. provide an example

Answer 213

attributions are those that relate to features of the surroundings. ex: threats, money, social norms, and peer pressure

Question 214

which of the following explains disposition and which explains situation? chalking up the nomination to luck. vs nominated for hard work

Answer 214

chalking up the nomination to luck. - situational while, nominated for hard work - disposition

Question 215

how do we understand the behaviours of a person?

Answer 215

we use clues. - consistency - consensus cues - distinctiveness

Question 216

define consistency cues

Answer 216

refer to the behaviour of a person over time - the more regular the behaviour, the more we associate it with that person

Question 217

define consensus cues

Answer 217

relate to the extent to which a person's behaviour differs from others - if a person deviates from socially expected behaviour, we are likely to form a dispositional attribution about the person's behaviour - meaning that consensus is LOW if consensus is HIGH, we say it is situational attribution

Question 218

define distinctiveness cues

Answer 218

the extent to which a person engages in similar behaviour across series of scenarios - if a person's behaviour CHANGES in different scenarios, we are more likely to form a situational attribution.

Question 219

correspondent inference theory

Answer 219

focusing on the intentionality of other's behaviour. we tend to explain the behaviour by dispositional attribution and this we may correlate these unexpected actions with the person's personality.

Question 220

explain the fundamental attribution error. provide an example.

Answer 220

posits that we are generally BIASED toward making dispositional attributions rather than situational attributions when judging the actions of others. ex: if a member on a team project does not do their work, we immediately say "oh they're so lazy" this is what fundamental attribution error is all about! we were quick to assume it is the PERSON's characteristic (dispositional).

Question 221

define attribute substitution. give an example.

Answer 221

occurs when individuals must make judgments that are complex, but they substitute a simpler solution or apply a heuristic ex: someone who has been thinking about their love life and is then asked how happy they are might substitute how happy they are with their love life rather than how happy they are in other areas

Question 222

define heuristic

Answer 222

enabling someone to discover or learn something for themselves.

Question 223

what is natural judgment?

Answer 223

located in the middle in a spectrum and when we use a combination of both internal and external factors when viewing others

Question 224

do humans use natural judgment when they look at other's behaviour?

Answer 224

no! we are more likely to associate their behaviours with internal factors!

Question 225

is fundamental attribution error problematic?

Answer 225

yes!

Question 226

explain how other look at at themselves considering external and internal factors of their own behaviours?

Answer 226

when looking at ourselves, we are more likely to see ourselves as victims of the circumstances. We blame our behaviour on external factors (ego-preservation)

Question 227

actor-observer bias

Answer 227

we are victims of ...... while others are wilful actors

Question 228

what are the two categories of culture when discussing behaviour and judgmenet on internal or external factors?

Answer 228

there are two types: 1. individualistic 2. collectivist

Question 229

define individualistic culture

Answer 229

such as NA and Europe. success is over attribution to their OWN behaviour and failure to EXTERNAl environment

Question 230

define collectivist culture

Answer 230

such as Asia success is over attribution to their EXTERNAL environment and failure to OWN behaviour

Question 231

self serving bias. provide some examples

Answer 231

mechanism of preserving our self-esteem, more common in individualistic cultures ex: if we succeed it is due to internal or personal qualities, but if we fail no hit on self esteem and likely to blame the environment

Question 232

what is optimism bias?

Answer 232

belief that bad things happen to others but not to us

Question 233

stereotypes are viewed as _______ prejudice is viewed as _______ discrimination is viewed as _______

Answer 233

stereotypes are viewed as cognitive prejudice is viewed as affective discrimination is viewed as behaviour

Question 234

define stereotype?

Answer 234

the expectations, impressions, and opiniones about the characteristics of members of a group.

Question 235

define prejudice

Answer 235

reflects the overall attitude and emotional response to a group

Question 236

define discrimination

Answer 236

refers to differences in actions toward different groups

Question 237

when do we consider stereotypes to be negative?

Answer 237

when are used to develop prejudices toward others and to discriminate

Question 238

from a sociology POV, when does stereotype occur?

Answer 238

when attitudes and impressions are based on limited and superficial information about a person or a group of individuals

Question 239

what is the stereotype content model

Answer 239

attempts to classify stereotypes with respect to a hypothetical in group using two dimensions: warmth and competence.

Question 240

warm groups according to the stereotype content model?

Answer 240

those that are not in direct competition with the in group for resources

Question 241

competent group according to the stereotype content model?

Answer 241

those that have high status in society

Question 242

paternalistic stereotypes

Answer 242

those in which the group is looked down upon inferior, dismissed or ignored

Question 243

contemptuous stereotypes

Answer 243

stereotypes in which the group is viewed with resentment, annoyance or anger

Question 244

envious stereotypes

Answer 244

stereotypes are those in which the group is viewed with jealousy, bitterness or distrust

Question 245

admiration stereotypes

Answer 245

those in which the group is viewed with pride and other positive feelings

Question 246

high warmth group + high competence group =

Answer 246

admiration stereotype

Question 247

high warmth group + low competence group

Answer 247

paternalistic stereotype

Question 248

low warmth group + high competence group

Answer 248

envious stereotype

Question 249

low warmth group + low competence group

Answer 249

contemptuous stereotype

Question 250

self fulfilling prophecy

Answer 250

these expectations that create conditions that then cause the expectations to become reality. YOU TO THEM: cognition - stereotype --> affective - prejudice --> behavioural - discrimination. As a result, THEY DO THE SAME TO YOU ex: a first year medical student not being able to quickly and efficiently throw knots during a surgery, which leads to struggle that validates stereotyping

Question 251

define stereotype threat

Answer 251

negative consequences of stereotyping - self fulfilling fear that one will be evaluated based on negative stereotyping. leads to lower performance

Question 252

stereotyping threatens _______

Answer 252

performance

Question 253

define ethnography

Answer 253

study a particular people and places

Question 254

ethnocentric?

Answer 254

judging someone else's culture from the position of your own culture. Viewing your culture to be superior to that of others

Question 255

what can ethnocentric lead to?

Answer 255

cultural bias and prejudice

Question 256

define cultural relativism?

Answer 256

the practice of assessing a culture by its own standards rather than viewing it through the lens of one own culture

Question 257

xenocentrism

Answer 257

judging another culture as superior to one's own culture

Question 258

cultrual imperialism

Answer 258

the deliberate imposition of one's own cultural values on another culture

Question 259

what do people within group shares between peers?

Answer 259

psychological connection

Question 260

in group vs out group?

Answer 260

in group: the one WE are connected with. stronger interactions in the in group than those in the out group out group: THEM, groups we are NOT associated with - we do not feel connected to

Question 261

in group favouritism vs out group derogation

Answer 261

in group favouritism: we favour/friendly to people in our OWN group but those in the out group we are NATURAL with and do not give them favours out group derogation: we are SUPER FRIENDLY with our own group and NOT FRIENDLY to out group, we discriminate the out group

Question 262

when does out group derogation happen?

Answer 262

when we feel the other group's success is putting OUR OWN group down

Question 263

group polarization? example

Answer 263

group makes decisions that are MORE EXTREME than any individual member in the group would. this can turbo charge the group's view point example: people who are opposed to the minimum wage are likely, after talking to each other, to be still more opposed

Question 264

define prejudice:

Answer 264

an irrational positive or negative attitude toward a person, group, or thing prior to an actual experience with that entity

Question 265

the process of _____ results in the formation of attitudes regarding our own groups and sense of identity as an individual and a group member

Answer 265

socialization

Question 266

propaganda

Answer 266

poster often involve messages of fear, and depictions of the target group are often exaggerated to an absurd degree

Question 267

what do propaganda attempt to do?

Answer 267

create prejudice

Question 268

what components make up prejudice?

Answer 268

- cognition - affect - discrimination

Question 269

scapegoats

Answer 269

group of people toward whom aggression is directed

Question 270

authorization personality

Answer 270

who are VERY prejudice, they are obedient to superiors bit do not have much empathy for those they dem inferior to themselves

Question 271

describe people with authoritarian personality

Answer 271

oppressive rigid thinkers inflexible with their point of view

Question 272

why do people with authoritarian personality rely on prejudice?

Answer 272

to protect their ego and to avoid their acceptable aspect of themselves and always focus on others

Question 273

frustration aggression hypothesis vs hypothesis of relative deprivation

Answer 273

frustration aggression hypothesis: not personality based but more emotional hypothesis of relative deprivation: upsurge in prejudice/discrimination when people are deprived of something they feel entitled to BOTH ARE LINKED

Question 274

define relative deprivation

Answer 274

the discrepancy of what they are entitled to and what they get

Question 275

example of frustration aggression hypothesis

Answer 275

someone who is mad at their employee do not get mad at them because if they did, they will lose the job. instead they get mad at minorities knowing no loss behind it. they re-channel their anger somewhere else

Question 276

define ethnicity

Answer 276

defined by national origin or distinct cultural patterns

Question 277

what can prejudice based on? define each

Answer 277

power: ability of people or groups to achieve their goals despite any obstacles and their ability to control resources social class: refers to socio-economic status, social inequality or unequal distribution of power, resources, money or prestige can result in the grouping of haves and have nots. prestige: level of respect shown to a person by others

Question 278

have nots?

Answer 278

nay develop a negative attitude toward haves based on envy.

Question 279

haves

Answer 279

may develop a negative attitude toward have nots as a defence mechanism, to justify the fact they have more

Question 280

just world phenomenon

Answer 280

good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people

Question 281

define discrimination

Answer 281

occurs when the prejudicial attitudes cause the individuals of a particular group to be treated differently from others

Question 282

does prejudice always result in discrimination

Answer 282

no! a person might have negative feelings toward a specific group but still pretend and act nice to them

Question 283

what influences discrimination?

Answer 283

the same factors that influence prejudice. ie: power, prestige, and social class

Question 284

individual discrimination vs institutional discrimination

Answer 284

individual discrimination: refers to one person discriminating against a particular person or group institutional discrimination: refers to the discrimination against a particular person or group by an entire institution.

Question 285

how can individual discrimination be removed?

Answer 285

by eliminating the person who is displaying the behaviour

Question 286

why did sociologist begin to stress the need to focus on institutional discrimination?

Answer 286

because it is built into the structure of society and is far more cover and harder to extricate. since it is part of society it is perpetrated by simply keeping the status quo

Question 287

self serving bias or self serving attributional bias

Answer 287

the fact that individuals credit their success to INTERNAL FACTORS and blame the external environment for their own failure

Question 288

self enhancement vs self verification

Answer 288

self enhancement: focuses on the need to maintain self worth which can be accomplished in part by the self serving bias self verification: suggest people will seek the companionship of others who see them as they see themselves, thereby validating a person's self serving bias.

Question 289

define stigma

Answer 289

extreme disapproval of a person based on some behaviour or quality of that person

Question 290

social stigma. example

Answer 290

extreme disapproval or discrediting of individual by society associated with stereotypes, prejudices and discrimination ex: afraid of mental health problems, "i am afraid to get near someone who is mentally ill"

Question 291

self stigma. example

Answer 291

when individual can internalize all the negative stereotypes, prejudices and discriminatory experiences they've had and may begin to feel rejected by society and avoid interacting with society. people with HIV or AIDS, feel social stigma and may go into denial and depression (hits their self-esteem)

Question 292

media when discussing stigma

Answer 292

re[resent conditions as moral failure or dangerous or people as violent ex: social media

Question 293

family when discussing stigma

Answer 293

can be shunned by society may be shun individual person/intimate relations support/therapy/education are important

Question 294

self when discussing stigma

Answer 294

avoidance denial mental health conditions not a member of society

Question 295

society when discussing stigma

Answer 295

education employers and health-care anti-discrimination laws

Question 296

first impression count because they are

Answer 296

long strong easily built upon

Question 297

primacy bias

Answer 297

first impression is more important than later data

Question 298

recency effect/bias

Answer 298

your most recent actions are very important, and people place a lot of emphasis on your recent actions or performances than the ones before

Question 299

reliance of central traits

Answer 299

based on traits that are most relevant to the perceiver

Question 300

implicit personality theory

Answer 300

sets of assumptions people make about how different type of people, their traits and their behaviours are related.

Question 301

halo effect

Answer 301

tendency people have inherently good or bad natures rather than looking an individual characteristics

Question 302

physical attractiveness stereotype

Answer 302

believe attractive people have more positive personality traits

Question 303

given an example of halo effect

Answer 303

if we see someone for the first time as a good person (first impression), we PERCEIVE THEM as good ALL THE TIME regardless of further evidence.

Question 304

devil effect

Answer 304

reverse halo effect --> carry over into how we see other attributions about the person. happens if overall negative impression or if one attribute is very negative

Question 305

what are the components of social perception

Answer 305

perceiver target situation

Question 306

perceiver in social perception

Answer 306

influenced by experience, motives, and emotional state

Question 307

target in social perception

Answer 307

a given social context can determine what information is available to the perceiver

Question 308

social perception

Answer 308

aka social cognition and provides the tools to male judgments and impressions regarding other people

Question 309

attributions

Answer 309

explanations for the causes of a person's actions

Question 310

is the just world hypothesis always held true?

Answer 310

no! because we blame people in poverty for being poor because they deserve it

Question 311

Rational techniques or irrational techniques to make sense of just world hypothesis

Answer 311

rational: accept reality and prevent/correct injustice (ie. changes to legal systems) irrational: denial of the situation and reinterpreting the events (change our interpretation of the outcome, the cause and the character of the victim

Question 312

interpersonal attraction

Answer 312

individuals liking each other

Question 313

what influences interpersonal attraction?

Answer 313

physical characteristics, similarity, self-disclosure, reciprocity and proximity

Question 314

reciprocity

Answer 314

the mutual exchange of energy and support between partners

Question 315

self disclosure

Answer 315

sharing one's fear, thoughts, and goals with another person and being met with nonjudgmental empathy

Question 316

reciprocal liking

Answer 316

the phenomenon whereby people liking others better when they believe the other person likes them

Question 317

mere exposure effect

Answer 317

known as familiarity effect the tendency for people to prefer stimuli that they have been exposed to frequently

Question 318

example of mere exposure effect

Answer 318

the more you hear the name of a brand the more you become attracted to it, and want to buy from it

Question 319

aggression

Answer 319

defined as a behaviour that intends to cause harm or increase social dominance

Question 320

ethologists

Answer 320

study aggression in terms of the interactions between animals in natural settings

Question 321

what parts of the brain contribute to violent behaviour?

Answer 321

amygdala prefrontal cortex

Question 322

how does the amygdala contribute to violent behaviour?

Answer 322

it is responsible for associating stimuli and their corresponding rewards or punishments. responsible for telling the brain if something is a threat or not

Question 323

how does the prefrontal cortex contribute to violent behaviour?

Answer 323

can hit the brakes on revved-up amygdala, reducing emotional reactivity and impulsiveness.

Question 324

_______ prefrontal cortex --> aggression _________ amygdala --> aggression

Answer 324

LOW ACTIVITY prefrontal cortex --> aggression HIGH ACTIVITY amygdala --> aggression

Question 325

cognitive neoassociation model

Answer 325

we are more likely to respond to others with aggression when feeling in a specific way (ie. tired)

Question 326

what did psychiatrist Bowlby notice? what did Ainsworth expounded on his theory?

Answer 326

He noticed the negative effects of isolation on social and emotional development in orphaned children and started the study of attachment. Ainsworth expounded this theory by saying that infants need a secure base, in the form of a consistent caregiver during the first 6 months to two years of life

Question 327

types of attachment. explain each

Answer 327

secure: when a child has a consistent caregiver and is able to go and explore knowing there is a secure base to return to. they trust the caregiver and get upset they leave avoidant: when the caregiver has little or no response to a distressed child. The child shows no preference between a stranger and caregiver and no relief when the caregiver returns ambivalent: when the caregiver has an inconsistent response to a child's distress, sometimes responding appropriately. the child will be very upset when caregiver leaves, but mixed emotions when they return disorganized: no clear pattern of behaviour in response to caregiver absence or presence but show a mix of different behaviours - RED FLAG OF ABUSE

Question 328

types of social support. explain each

Answer 328

emotional: listening, affirming, and emphasizing with someone's feelings esteem: touches directly on affirming the qualities and skills of a person remind other of the skills they have to tackle their problems and boost their confidence. material/tangible: any type of financial or material contribution to another person informational: providing information what will help someone. ie. Dr. Elissar explaining the risks and benefits of a treatment to her patients network: social support that vies a person a sense of belonging - ie. group activities.

Question 329

correlation between social support and health

Answer 329

low social support leads to diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer people with high social support, cure from cold rapidly

Question 330

foraging

Answer 330

seeking out and eating food --> driven by biological, psychological and social influences.

Question 331

sensation of hunger is controlled by ____

Answer 331

hypothalamus

Question 332

______ hypothalamus promotes hunger while the _____ responds to cutes that we are full and promotes satiey

Answer 332

LATERAL hypothalamus promotes hunger while the VENTROMEDIAL responds to cutes that we are full and promotes satiey

Question 333

speaking of foraging: if lateral hypothalumus is damaged --> if ventromedial hypothalamus is damaged -->

Answer 333

if lateral hypothalumus is damaged --> lose interest in eating if ventromedial hypothalamus is damaged --> obesity since never feel full

Question 334

mating system

Answer 334

describes the organization of a group's sexual behaviour

Question 335

monogamy

Answer 335

exclusive mating relationship

Question 336

polygamy

Answer 336

having EXCLUCIVE relationships with multiple partners

Question 337

polygyny

Answer 337

high EXCLUCIVE mating with females

Question 338

polyandry

Answer 338

high EXCLUCIVE mating with males

Question 339

promiscuity

Answer 339

member of one sex mating with others without exclusivity

Question 340

inclusive fitness

Answer 340

the measure of an organism's success in the population based on the number of offspring, success in supporting offspring and the ability of the offspring to then support them

Question 341

ESS - evolutionary stable strategy

Answer 341

when an ESS is present or adopted, natural selection will PREVENT other strategies from arising, and thus, this will be passed on.

Question 342

game payoffs refer to

Answer 342

fitness

Question 343

if B> C, who wins, doves or hawks?

Answer 343

Hawks

Question 344

if C>B who wins, doves or hawks?

Answer 344

doves

Question 345

what happens when two doves compete? what about two hawks

Answer 345

two D: share food two H: one wins over another

Question 346

four alternatives for competitors when dealing with strategic interactions. explain each

Answer 346

altruism: donor provides a benefit to the recipient at a cost to the donor cooperation: both the D and R benefit by cooperating spite: both the D and R are negatively impacted selfishness: the D benefits while the R loses

Question 347

define altruism

Answer 347

form of helping in which the individual's intent is to benefit at some cost to the self - motivated by selfishness and egoism or ulterior motives.

Question 348

define empathy

Answer 348

ability to vicariously experience the emotions of another

Question 349

empathy-altruism hypothesis

Answer 349

one individual helps another when feeling empathy for the other person REGARDLESS OF COST

Question 350

selection of mate based on attraction is known as

Answer 350

mate choice or intersexual selection

Question 351

mate bias

Answer 351

how choosy members of the species are while choosing a mate

Question 352

direct vs indirect benefits

Answer 352

direct: material advantages, protection and emotional support. while indirect: promoting better survival in offspring

Question 353

mechanisms of mate choice

Answer 353

phenotypic benefits genetic compatibility fisherian or runaway selection sensory bias indicator traits

Question 354

phenotypic benefits

Answer 354

physical characteristics that appear attractive and to increase the survival of offspring

Question 355

sensory bias

Answer 355

development of traits to march a preexisting preference that exists in the population. ex: humans might prefer certain types of sounds, visual patterns, or smells, not because these are inherently attractive, but because their sensory systems are already attuned to them

Question 356

fisherian or runaway selection

Answer 356

positive feedback mechanism in which a particular trait has no effect or negative effect on survival and become more and more exaggerated over time. ex: Females may develop a preference for taller males

Question 357

indicator traits

Answer 357

traits that signify overall good health and well being of an organism increasing its attractiveness to mates

Question 358

genetic compatibility

Answer 358

creation of mate pairs that when combined have complementary genetics. provides a mechanism for the reduced frequency of recessive genetic disorder in the population: attraction to others who have starkly different genetic makeups reduces the probability of offspring being homozygotic for a disorder

Question 359

define a status/social status

Answer 359

perceived positions in society that are used to classify individuals

Question 360

what are the types of statuses

Answer 360

ascribed achieved master

Question 361

what is ascribed status?

Answer 361

statuses you CAN NOT CHANGE and where given to you at birth such as race, sex, and family background

Question 362

what is achieved status?

Answer 362

a status GAINED as a result of an achievement or even choices . such as being a DR. Elissar

Question 363

what is a master status?

Answer 363

the status by which a person is most identified

Question 364

what is the most important status? explain

Answer 364

master status is the most important status a person holds and affected all aspects of that person's life. It is how people view themselves and often holds a symbolic value

Question 365

master statuses can cause _______

Answer 365

pigeonholing - we may view individuals only through the lens of their master status WITHOUT regard to any other personal characteristics

Question 366

if a woman feels that her role as a mother is more important than her role as a daughter than this is _____ status

Answer 366

master

Question 367

which one is superior, a prof vs a student

Answer 367

the professor

Question 368

what is each status associated with?

Answer 368

roles pr sets of beliefs, values, attitudes and norms that define expectation for those who hold the status

Question 369

what is a role performance?

Answer 369

carrying our of behaviours associated with a given role

Question 370

what do behaviours and expectations change as a result of?

Answer 370

as a result of role partner - the person with whom one is interacting with

Question 371

the various roles associated with a status are referred to as _______

Answer 371

role set

Question 372

what is role conflict? when does it occur?

Answer 372

the difficulty in satisfying the requirements or expectations of multiple roles. a husband/father has a date night but his son is injured, so the man decides to take the role as a DAD and help the son out (hopefully)

Question 373

what is role strain? when does it occur?

Answer 373

the difficulty in satisfying multiple requirements of the SAME role. a student is stuck between writing a paper, a speech to write and a midterm to prepare for.

Question 374

what is role exit?

Answer 374

the dropping of one identity for another. ie. someone retires as a doctor and decides to become a professor

Question 375

define a group in sociological terms

Answer 375

consists of two or more people who share any number of similar characteristics as well as sense of unity

Question 376

the simplest of social groups is ___, followed by ___

Answer 376

the simplest of social groups is dyad, followed by triad

Question 377

as group size increases, the group triads ____ for stability

Answer 377

intimacy

Question 378

what are some characteristics shared by social groups?

Answer 378

values interests ethnicity social background family ties political representation

Question 379

how do sociologists see social interactions?

Answer 379

as the most important characteristic that strengthens a social group

Question 380

can groups be a source of conflict?

Answer 380

yes! including discrimination persecution oppression war

Question 381

what is an in-group?

Answer 381

a social group with which a person experiences a sense of belonging or identifies as a member

Question 382

what is an out-group?

Answer 382

refers to a social group with which an individual does NOT identify

Question 383

what is a peer group?

Answer 383

consists of self-selected equals associated by similar interests, ages, or statuses

Question 384

family group

Answer 384

NOT SELF SELECTED but determined by birth, adoption and marriage

Question 385

what is a reference group?

Answer 385

groups that individuals use as a standard for evaluating themselves. ex: how strong a medical school applicant you are, you might compare yourself to the reference groups of all medical schools

Question 386

primary group

Answer 386

interactions between members of the group are direct with close binds providing warm, personal and intimate relationships to members. they are LAST LONG TERM

Question 387

secondary group

Answer 387

interactions are impersonal and businesslike with FEW emotional bonds and with the goal of accomplishing a specific purpose. They are SHORT TERM

Question 388

what is gemeinschaft and gesellschaft? what do each mean?

Answer 388

translates to community and society gemeinschaft: community - refers to the groups unified by feelings of togetherness due to shared beliefs, ancestry or geography. such as families and neighborhoods. Gesellschaft: society - refers to less personal groups that are formed out of mutual self-interests working together toward the same goal. companies and countries are examples.

Question 389

what is interaction process analysis?

Answer 389

a technique for observing, classifying and measuring the interactions within small groups

Question 390

what is SYMLOG? expalin

Answer 390

system for multiple level observation of groups. based on the belief that there are fundamental dimensions of interaction: - dominance vs submission - friendliness vs. unfriendliness - instrumentally controlled vs. emotionally expressive

Question 391

how is group pressure created?

Answer 391

a group holds power over group members leafing to pressure that shapes the member's behaviours

Question 392

group conformity

Answer 392

individuals are complaint with the group's goals even when the group's foals may be in direct contrast to the individual's goal

Question 393

why do individuals conform when talking about group conformity?

Answer 393

in an attempt to fit in and be accepted by the group, they would participate in behaviours that they normally would NOT

Question 394

group think

Answer 394

related to group conformity and occurs when members focus on reaching a consensus at the cost of critical evaluation of relevant information.

Question 395

what does network mean?

Answer 395

used to describe the observable pattern of social relationships among individuals or groups

Question 396

how can patterns of relationships be determined?

Answer 396

by mapping the interactions between individual units, the nature of which can be highly variable.

Question 397

if there are overlapping connections with the same individual, it is known as?

Answer 397

network redundancy

Question 398

what is network analysis used for?

Answer 398

to gain understanding of the actions of individuals and groups and to study the broader social structure

Question 399

immediate networks vs distant networks

Answer 399

immediate: dense with strong ties - composed of friends distant: looser and contain weaker ties- include acquaintances (connections)

Question 400

define organizations in sociology

Answer 400

are complex secondary groups that are set up to achieve specific goals and are characterized by having structure and a culture

Question 401

formal organization

Answer 401

developed during the industrial revolution as a way to MAXIMIZE efficiency

Question 402

the basic organization of society is found its _____

Answer 402

characteristic institution

Question 403

in prehistoric times, characteristic institution was primarily ______

Answer 403

kin, clan, or sib

Question 404

what are kin , clan, or sib

Answer 404

"sib" and "clan" are often used interchangeably to refer to a group of related individuals who share a common ancestor, though the exact lineage might be unclear. "Kin" is a broader term referring to all people related by blood or marriage

Question 405

_______ as the characteristic institution

Answer 405

bureaucracy

Question 406

define bureaucracy

Answer 406

the process by which organizations become increasingly governed by laws and policy

Question 407

types of organizations. define each and give some examples

Answer 407

utilitarian: members are paid/rewarded for their efforts. ie. jobs and universities. normative: members come together through shared goals. ie. religion groups or MADD coercive: members do not have choice about membership. ie. people in prison/military

Question 408

iron law of oligarchy

Answer 408

even most democratic of organizations become more bureaucratic over time until they're governed by select few which can be explained through conflict theory in which once a person gains leadership role in organization, they might be hesitant to give up but those with power have vested interest in keeping it.

Question 409

what is conflict theory?

Answer 409

once a person gains leadership role in organization, they might be hesitant to give up but those with power have vested interest in keeping it.

Question 410

define oligarchy

Answer 410

a small group of people having control of a country, organization or institution

Question 411

Define McDonaldization. give examples of principles that fall under this category

Answer 411

Polices of fast food organizations have come to dominate other organizations in society. principles of efficiency, calculability, predictability, uniformity and control

Question 412

What did Max Weber say about organization?

Answer 412

He studied the structure of organization which according to him, 5 main characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy, regardless of the goal of the organization. - division of labour - Hierarchy of organization - Written rules and regulations - Impersonality - Employment based on technical qualifications

Question 413

Describe the 5 characteristics of bureaucracy

Answer 413

- division of labour: people are trained to do specific tasks - Hierarchy of organization: each position is under supervision of higher authority. Not all people of an organization are equal. - Written rules and regulations: goal displacement where rules become more important than the goals of organization - Impersonality: how individuals and officials conduct activities in unbiased manner - Employment based on technical qualifications: hiring in bureaucracy is based on qualification on person has and not favouritism/personal rivalries

Question 414

trained incapacity

Answer 414

workers are so specialized in tasks they lose touch with the overall picture

Question 415

pros and con of each type of bureaucracy

Answer 415

- division of labour: pros - people are better at tasks and increases efficiency. cons - increase alienation in workers separating them from other works and they don not see worm from beginning to end - Hierarchy of organization: pros - clarify who is in command. cons - deprive people of voice in decision making - Written rules and regulations: pros - clear expectations and uniform performance and treatment. cons: stiffness creativity - Impersonality: pros - equal treatments. cons - alienation, discourage loyalty to the group - Employment based on technical qualifications: pro - decrease discrimination. con: decrease ambition and leads to peter principle where every employee in hierarchy keeps getting promoted until they teach level of incompetence

Question 416

self presentation

Answer 416

the process of displaying ourselves to society both visually and through out actions often to make sure others see is in the best possible light

Question 417

the basic model of emotional expression

Answer 417

was first established by Charles Darwin where he states that emotional expression involves a number of components. - facial expressions - behaviours - postures - vocal changes - physiological changes

Question 418

explain the appraisal model

Answer 418

closely related, and accepts that there are biologically predetermined expression since an emotion is experienced but there is a cognitive antecedent to emotional expression.

Question 419

social construction model

Answer 419

assumes that there is no biological basis form emotions. instead, emotions are based on experiences and the situational context alone. It suggests that certain emotions can only exist within social encounters and that emotions are expressed differently and thus play different roles across culture

Question 420

cultural expectations of emotions are often referred to ______. give an example

Answer 420

display rules. In Utkuhikhalik Inuit society anger is rarely expressed and it if expressed by someone they are considered social pariahs

Question 421

define social pariahs

Answer 421

people that are NOT accepted by a community

Question 422

cultural syndrome

Answer 422

shared set of beliefs, attitudes, norms, values and behaviours among members of the same culture that are organized around a central theme

Question 423

how do individualist countries view happiness vs. collectivists

Answer 423

individualist countries: happiness is viewed as infinite attainable and internally experienced collectivists: happiness is a very rational emotion and generally applied to collective experiences more than to individual successes.

Question 424

list the impression management strategies.

Answer 424

self disclosure managing appearances ingratiation aligning actions alter-casting

Question 425

explain self disclosure impression management strategy with an example.

Answer 425

giving information about oneself to establish an identity. ex: disclosing that you are a premedical student

Question 426

explain managing appearances impression management strategy with an example.

Answer 426

using props, appearances, emotional expression, or associations with others to create a positive image. ex: wearing a white goat, keeping calm while dealing with a tough patient

Question 427

explain ingratiation impression management strategy with an example.

Answer 427

using flattery or conforming to expectations to win someone over ex: blindly agreeing to someone else's opinion

Question 428

explain aligning actions impression management strategy with an example.

Answer 428

making questionable behaviour acceptable through excuses ex: justifications for missing deadlines, blaming a bad grade on too little sleep.

Question 429

explain alter-casting impression management strategy with an example.

Answer 429

imposing an identity onto another person ex: any example that says "as a good MCAT student, you should ...." in which you are assigned the role of a good MCAT student

Question 430

define impression management

Answer 430

our attempts to influence how others perceive us. depends on how we present ourselves to others

Question 431

what are the three "selves" described by theorists when discussing impression management.

Answer 431

authentic self ideal self tactical self

Question 432

authentic self vs. ideal self vs. tactical self

Answer 432

authentic self : describes who the person actually is including both positive and negative attributes. ideal self: refers to who we would like to be under optimal circumstances tactical self: refers to who we market ourselves to be when we adhere to other's expectations

Question 433

Dramaturgical approach by Goffman

Answer 433

metaphor of theatre how individuals create images of themselves in various situations

Question 434

Two components of Dramaturgy

Answer 434

Front stage self: the persona they present to the audience. A person will adapt their front stage depending on the social situation Backstage: the personal adopted when not in social situation and there is no concern about upholding the performance of a desired public image

Question 435

Generalized other

Answer 435

based on a person's established perceptions of the expectations of society

Question 436

According to George Mead, the ____ shapes the ____

Answer 436

Me shapes I

Question 437

Me vs I when talking about social interactions

Answer 437

Me: the part of the self that is developed through interactions with society I: the individual's own impulses

Question 438

what is communication

Answer 438

the ability to convey information by speech, writing, signals or behaviours

Question 439

Types of communication. explain each with examples

Answer 439

verbal: transmission of information via the use of words, whether spoken, written or signed. ie: spoken language, written language, sign languages, and tactile languages (using touch) nonverbal: refers to how people communicate internationally or unintentionally without words. ie. facial expression, body language, gestures, tone of voice, eye contact, and amount of personal space

Question 440

animal communication

Answer 440

defined as any behaviour of one animal that affects the behaviour of another such as body language

Question 441

do pheromones have an affect on humans?

Answer 441

this is a debatable topic since humans lack many of the genes necessary for the function of the vomeronasal organ which is an accessory olfactory organ seen in other animals

Question 442

examples of how animals communicate

Answer 442

through different positions (for reproduction mostly) scent colour sounds

Question 443

intra-specifically vs interspecifically

Answer 443

intra-specifically: between members of the SAME species while interspecifically: between members of DIFFERENT species

Question 444

who is Koko?

Answer 444

gorilla who was able to communicate with humans through the use of American Sign Language.

Question 445

anthropomorphism

Answer 445

attributing human characteristics to non-human animals

Question 446

what is social action according to Max Weber?

Answer 446

The actions and behaviours that individuals are performing or modulating because others are around.

Question 447

are social action and social interaction the same?

Answer 447

no! they are contrasted

Question 448

how do we simply examine social interaction?

Answer 448

we look at the behaviour and actions of two or more individuals who take one another into account

Question 449

what is it called when people tend to perform better on SIMPLE tasks when in the presence of others?

Answer 449

social facilitation

Question 450

Yekers-Dodson law of social facilitation

Answer 450

being in the presence of others will significantly raise arousal --> enhances the ability to perform tasks one is already good at and hinders the performance of less familiar tasks

Question 451

what influences performance according to social facilitation?

Answer 451

not solely individual ability but also social environment and awareness of that environment

Question 452

Deindividuation/mob mentality

Answer 452

the loss of one's self awareness in a group setting and the associated adopted of a more group oriented identity.

Question 453

what are the factors that impact deindividuation?

Answer 453

group cohesion and individual anonymity

Question 454

what happens to the strength of deindividuation as anonymity increases?

Answer 454

also increases

Question 455

what is antinormative behaviour?

Answer 455

behaviour not socially acceptable in most social circumstances - behaviour against the norm

Question 456

what is the bystander effect?

Answer 456

occurs in social groups wherein individuals do not intervene to assist those who are in perceived need when other people are present.

Question 457

according to the bystander effect, the more people standing by, the ______ one of those people is to help

Answer 457

LESS likely

Question 458

in groups made up of strangers, the likelihood of a response and the speed of that response is ____ that in group of well aquatinted individuals

Answer 458

much SLOWER

Question 459

social loafing

Answer 459

refers to the tendency of individuals to reduce effort when in a group setting

Question 460

what is social acceptance associated with for children?

Answer 460

associated with being like the social norm of the group, regardless of positive or negative connotations

Question 461

changes in beliefs or behaviours due to peer pressure can be explained by _______

Answer 461

identity shift effect

Question 462

cognitive dissonance

Answer 462

the simultaneous presence of two opposing thoughts or opinions leading to an internal state of discomfort

Question 463

what is Asch's experiments? what did he conclude?

Answer 463

He showed male participants two papers (one had three lines of different lengths, and the other had one line of the same length to ONE of the three lines on the other paper). He asked them to pick one of the lines from the first paper that matches the length of the line on the second paper, however, confederates were secretly told to unanimously respond correctly or incorrectly. - when people answered right --> the error rate <1% - when people answered wrong even tho they KNEW the answer --> error rate >30% Therefore, he concluded that individuals will sometimes provide answers they know to be UNTRUE ig it avoids against the group. desire of conformity ? desire to provide the correct answer

Question 464

what is social interaction?

Answer 464

explores the ways in which two or more individuals can both shape each other's behaviour

Question 465

group polarization

Answer 465

describes the tendency for groups to collaboratively make decisions that are more extreme than the individual ideas and inclinations of the members within the group

Question 466

what can polarization lead to?

Answer 466

riskier and more cautious decisions based on the initial tendencies of the group members toward risk or caution

Question 467

choice shift

Answer 467

initial ideas tend not to be extreme but that through discussion within the group, these ideas tend to become more and more extreme.

Question 468

choice shift vs polarization

Answer 468

choice shift: refers specifically to measured changes in decisions before and after group interaction. polarization: more generally to the tendency of a group to move to more extreme conclusions and decisions as a result of interaction

Question 469

groupthink

Answer 469

social phenomenon in which desire for harmony or conformity results in a group of people coming to an incorrect or poor decision

Question 470

why are consensus decisions reached without alternative ideas being assessed?

Answer 470

to eliminate or minimize conflict among the group members

Question 471

According to Janis, what are the factors that are indicate of groupthink?

Answer 471

illusion of invulnerability collective rationalization illusion of morality excessive stereotyping pressure for conformity self-censorship illusion of unanimity mind-guards

Question 472

illusion of invulnerability

Answer 472

members encourage risks, ignore possible pitfalls and are too optimistic --> group think

Question 473

collective rationalization

Answer 473

members ignore expressed concerns about group approved ideas --> group think

Question 474

illusion of morality

Answer 474

members believe ideas are produced by the group are morally correct, disregarding evidence to the contrary --> group think

Question 475

excessive stereotyping

Answer 475

Members construct stereotypes of those expressing outside opinions --> group think

Question 476

pressure for conformity

Answer 476

members feel pressured not to express opinions that disagree with the group, and view opposition as disloyal --> group think

Question 477

self-censorship

Answer 477

members withhold ideas and opinions that disagree with the group --> group think

Question 478

illusion of unanimity

Answer 478

members believe the decisions and judgments of the group to be without disagreement, even it it does exist --> group think

Question 479

mind-guards

Answer 479

some members may decide to take on a role protecting the group against opposing views --> group think

Question 480

what is a fad?

Answer 480

a behaviour that is transiently viewed as popular and desirable by a large community

Question 481

mass hysteria

Answer 481

refers to a shared, intense concern about the threats of society.

Question 482

what leads to a shared delusion that is augmented by distrust, rumours, propaganda and fear mongering?

Answer 482

Many features of groupthink, collective rationalization, illusion of morality, excessive stereotyping, and pressure for conformity in particular lead to a shared delusion that is augmented by distrust, rumours, propaganda and fear mongering

Question 483

define culture

Answer 483

the beliefs, behaviours, actions and characteristics of a group or society of people.

Question 484

culture shock

Answer 484

when traveling outside of one's own society, these cultural differences can seem quiet dramatic

Question 485

assimilation

Answer 485

the process by which an individual's or group's behaviour and culture begin to resemble that of another group

Question 486

what are the factors that are usually used to assess the degree of assimilation in immigrant communities?

Answer 486

socioeconomic status geographic distribution language attainment intermarriage

Question 487

ethnic enclave

Answer 487

alternative to assimilation - locations (usually neighbourhoods) with high concentration of one specific ethnicity

Question 488

multiculturalism

Answer 488

aka: cultural diversity refers to communities or societies containing multiple cultures or ethnic groups

Question 489

multiculturalism vs assimilation

Answer 489

assimilation: merging of cultures; a melting pot multiculturalism: celebration of coexisting cultures; a cultural mosaic

Question 490

subcultures

Answer 490

groups of people within a culture that distinguish themselves from the primary culture to which they belong

Question 491

how are subcultures formed?

Answer 491

based on race, gender, ethnicity, sexuality, and other differentiating factors from the whole society

Question 492

when are subcultures perceived as negative?

Answer 492

when they subvert the majority culture's definitions of normalcy

Question 493

counterculture

Answer 493

the subculture group gravitates toward an identity that is at odds with the majority culture and deliberately oppose the prevailing social mores.

Question 494

cultural transmission or cultural learning

Answer 494

beliefs, customs and cultural norms are often passed down from one g to another

Question 495

cultural diffusion

Answer 495

spread of norms, customs and beliefs from one culture to another

Question 496

primary socialization

Answer 496

occurs during childhood when we initially learn acceptable actions and attitudes in our society, primarily through observation our caregivers and other adults in close proximity

Question 497

secondary socialization

Answer 497

the process of learning appropriate behaviour within a smaller section of the larger society. typically associated with adolescents and adults

Question 498

anticipatory socialization

Answer 498

the process by which a person prepares for future changes in occupations, living situations or relationships

Question 499

Resocialization

Answer 499

ibe discards old behaviours in favour of new ones, typically through intensive retraining and can have a positive or negative connotations

Question 500

members of the armed forces are trained to obey orders and commands without hesitation is an example of_______

Answer 500

resocialization

Question 501

norms according to sociologists

Answer 501

societal rules that define the boundaries of acceptable behaviour

Question 502

______ widely observed social norms

Answer 502

Mores

Question 503

_____ serves as means of social control

Answer 503

norms

Question 504

penalties of misconduct or rewards for appropriate behaviours

Answer 504

sanctions

Question 505

Formal vs informal sanctions

Answer 505

formal: enforced by formal social institutions like governments or employers and can include receiving a promotion (positive sanctions) or jail (negative) informal: enforced by social groups and might include being allowed to sit at a particular table in the school cafeteria (positive) or exclusion from a social group (negative)

Question 506

taboo

Answer 506

socially unacceptable, disgusting or reprehensible

Question 507

folkways

Answer 507

norms that refer to behaviour that is considered polite in particular social interactions such as shaking hands after a match

Question 508

agent of socialization

Answer 508

any part of society that is important when learning social norms and values

Question 509

list some agents of socialization

Answer 509

school family clubs/social groups ethnic background work media government religion peers

Question 510

deviance

Answer 510

any violation of norms, values, or expectations within a society

Question 511

social stigma

Answer 511

the extreme disapproval or dislike of a person or group based on perceived differences from the rest of society

Question 512

is social stigma in the medical field?

Answer 512

yes! such as HIV, dwarfism and obesity

Question 513

example that shows how stigma evolves over time

Answer 513

divorce was stigmatized in the early 20th, but now it does not have any strong negative connotations

Question 514

Deviance, stigmatization and reputation are strongly linked by _______ theory

Answer 514

the labelling theory

Question 515

the labelling theory

Answer 515

posits that the labels given to a person affect not only how others respond to that person, but also affect that person's self-image

Question 516

we resist being labelled, particularly labels we perceive as ____

Answer 516

-ve

Question 517

role engulfment

Answer 517

internalizing a label and assuming the role implied by the label may lead to the assumed role taking over a person's identity

Question 518

differential association

Answer 518

the degree to which one is surrounded by ideals that adhere to social norms vs. ideals that go against them

Question 519

when do individuals gravitate toward deviant behaviour?

Answer 519

when associations with others engaging in deviant behaviour are numerous or intense than those engaging in normative behaviour

Question 520

strain theory

Answer 520

attempts to explain deviance as a natural reaction to the disconnect between social goals and social structure

Question 521

a common example of strain theory

Answer 521

American dream refers to acquiring wealth and personal stability through achievement and hard work

Question 522

What do theories such as the strain and differential association theory argue?

Answer 522

deviance provides a clear perception of social norms and acceptable boundaries, encourages unity within society and even promote social change.

Question 523

differential association theory

Answer 523

deviance particularly criminal behaviour, can be learned through interactions with others intimate exposure to others who engage in deviant behaviour lays the ground work for people to engage in deviant behaviour

Question 524

conformity

Answer 524

matching one's attitudes, beliefs and behaviours to group or societal norms

Question 525

Conformity is also known as

Answer 525

majority influence

Question 526

normative conformity and an experiment as an example to support

Answer 526

the desire to fit into a group because of fear of rejection. Asch experiment would be an example

Question 527

types of conformity

Answer 527

internalization and identification

Question 528

internalization conformity

Answer 528

involves changing one's behaviour to fit with a group while also privately agreeing with the ideas of the group

Question 529

identification conformity

Answer 529

the outward acceptance of others' ideas without personally taking on these ideas

Question 530

Explain philip Zimbardo's standford experiment

Answer 530

College students were randomly assigned roles of either guards or prisoners in a mock prison set up in Stanford's basement. The experiment quickly escalated, with guards becoming abusive and prisoners showing signs of severe stress. Originally planned for two weeks, it was terminated after just six days due to ethical concerns. the guards and prisoners were shocked by their behaviour when they internalized their roles

Question 531

conformity in individualistic culture vs collectivist

Answer 531

individualistic: tend to value independent thought and unique ideas and are thus less likely to conform collectivist: group mentality often supersedes the individual

Question 532

compliance

Answer 532

a change in behaviour based on direct request

Question 533

ways to gain compliance

Answer 533

foot in the door door in the face lowball technique that's not all technique

Question 534

foot in the door

Answer 534

begins with a small request, after gaining compliance, a large request is made. ask for notes at first then ask for a copy of every single note

Question 535

door in the face

Answer 535

opposite to foot in the door large request are made first, once rejected, small requests are made small requests are usually the goal ask for a copy of every single note, then ask for notes for a missed class

Question 536

lowball technique

Answer 536

the requestor will get an initial commitment from an individual, and then raise the cost of the commitment you are asked to commit five hours for meeting per month but then realize that you also need to get reports done and presentations

Question 537

that's not all technique

Answer 537

an individual is made an offer, but before making a decision, is told the deal is even better than expected we offer you these earring for a low price $19.99, but wait! if you buy them, you will receive our matching necklace, normal retail value $49.99. absolutely free.

Question 538

obedience

Answer 538

changing one's behaviour in response to a direct order or expectation expressed by an authority figure (with the power)

Question 539

Explain the Stanely Milgram experiment

Answer 539

tested obedience to authority by seeing how far people would go in following orders, even if it meant harming others. Participants were instructed to administer increasingly severe electric shocks to a person (an actor) whenever they gave wrong answers. Despite hearing the actor's simulated screams, many participants continued under pressure from the authority figure in a lab coat. The results showed that ordinary people are surprisingly likely to follow orders, even when it goes against their morals, raising important questions about authority and conscience.

Question 540

social cognition

Answer 540

focuses on the ways in which people think about others and how these ideas impact behaviour

Question 541

attitude

Answer 541

the expression of positive or negative feeling toward a person, place, thing or scenario

Question 542

what are the primary components of attitude

Answer 542

affective behavioural cognitive

Question 543

affective attitude; with example

Answer 543

the way a person feel toward something, and is the emotional component of attitude snakes scare me i love my family

Question 544

behavioural attitude; with example

Answer 544

the way a person acts with respect to something avoiding snakes and spending time with their family

Question 545

cognitive attitude; with example

Answer 545

the way an individual thinks about something which is usually the justification for the the other two components (affective and behavioural). i am afraid of snakes because they are dangerous

Question 546

functional attitudes theories

Answer 546

attitudes serve four functions knowledge ego expression adaptation ego defence

Question 547

describe each of the functions of attitudes

Answer 547

knowledge: attitudes help provide organization to thoughts and experiences, and knowing that attitudes help to predict their behaviour ego expression: allowing us to communicate and solidify our self identity adaptation: the idea that expressed socially acceptable attitudes will lead to acceptance ego defence: if they protect our self esteem or justify actions that we know are WRONG

Question 548

learning theory

Answer 548

attitudes are developed through different forms of learning

Question 549

elaboration likelihood model with example

Answer 549

attitude formation and attitude change that separates individuals on a continuum based on how they process persuasive information deep thinkers

Question 550

central route processing vs. central route to persuasion

Answer 550

central route processing: deep thinking about information, scrutinize its meaning and purpose and draw conclusions and make decisions base don this analysis central route to persuasion: when an attempt to influence attitudes uses information that appeals to central route processing - ie. scientific paper

Question 551

peripheral route processing vs. peripheral route to persuasion

Answer 551

peripheral route processing: those who do not elaborate and focus instead on superficial details such as appearance peripheral route to persuasion: when attempts to influence attitudes appeal to peripheral route processing - ie. ad with just a logo that contains a visually appealing image

Question 552

social cognitive theory

Answer 552

people learn how to behave and shape attitudes by observing the behaviours of others. It states that behaviours are not learned by trial and error but develops through direct observation and replication of the actions of others

Question 553

central route processing shows ___ elaboration while peripheral shows ____

Answer 553

central route processing shows HIGH elaboration while peripheral shows LOW

Question 554

bandura's triadic reciprocal causation

Answer 554

the mutual influence between three variables: environment, behavior, and person

Question 555

example of bandura's triadic reciprocal causation

Answer 555

work ethnic of employees in a company (behaviour) is affected by how hard their colleagues work, their previous attitudes toward hard work (personal) and the system and infrastructure of the company (environment). Reciprocally, this behaviour creates a change in the employee's attitude toward work (personal) and the systems within the company (environment)

Question 556

are conformity and peer pressure the same?

Answer 556

yes!

Question 557

informative conformity influence

Answer 557

looking at the group for guidance and assume they're correct and just go along with them

Question 558

normative conformity influence

Answer 558

you KNOW the group is doing something wrong, but you choose to go with them so you do not look the odd one

Question 559

private vs. public conformity

Answer 559

private --> informative public --> normative

Question 560

confirmation bias

Answer 560

group members seek out information that support the majority view

Question 561

maintaining harmony among group members is more important than carefully analyzing the problem at hand is ____

Answer 561

groupthink --> unity

Question 562

__________ are all processes when individuals come together in a group. Not always positive unless the group is positive.

Answer 562

conformity groupthink group polarization

Question 563

social anomie

Answer 563

breakdown of social bonds between an individual and community

Question 564

how can one resolve social anomie

Answer 564

social norms must be strengthened and groups must redevelop sets of shared norms

Question 565

"im just following orders" --> everyone is running away, you run away -->

Answer 565

"im just following orders" --> obedience everyone is running away, you run away --> conformity

Question 566

start going to the gym to comply with my friends, but then they stop going to the gym but i do not -->

Answer 566

internalization

Question 567

friends talking about a singer all the time, you decide to tell the group you also like the singer even if you do not known them -->

Answer 567

normative social influence

Question 568

you move to a new place, and ask people who live there about some suggestions and you follow them -->

Answer 568

informational social influence

Question 569

unanimity

Answer 569

when opinions of group are unanimous (everyone agrees)

Question 570

group cohesion

Answer 570

if we feel no connection with group, feel less need to go along with that group

Question 571

prior commitments

Answer 571

if we say something earlier that foes against group, we will decrease conformity because we are less likely to say something different later. if we say something earlier that is along the line of the group will increase conformity

Question 572

factors that increase the likelihood someone would obey

Answer 572

depends on the authority giving order closeness to authority (more likely to accept from someone close) physical proximity (more closer to us) legitimacy of authority (if wearing a lab coat) Institutional authority (ie. well respected university) victim distance (if we see the victim we would reduce the likelihood we would obey) depersonalization (seem less human through stereotypes)

Question 573

group produced reduction of individual effort with an example

Answer 573

groups experiencing social loading are less productive, put forth less effort, and perform poorly. in group presentation, they put less effort and perform poorly

Question 574

Hawthorne effect/observer effect

Answer 574

a type of reactivity in which individuals modify or improve an aspect of their behaviour in response in their awareness of being observed

Question 575

bystander effect is ____ to group size

Answer 575

inversely proportional large group --> bystander effect (high)

Question 576

people behaving differently (violent) on good friday for sale in a BIG GROUP -->

Answer 576

deindividuation

Question 577

arousal ___ in social facilitation

Answer 577

increases

Question 578

group produced reduction of individual effort is ____

Answer 578

social loafing (less productive and perform poorly as a result)

Question 579

how can we reduce social loafing

Answer 579

make the task harder or give each member a different task mark independently not group

Question 580

most participants said "the answer they gave was incorrect but went along with it because they would otherwise feel ridiculed by the group". This is known as:

Answer 580

Normative Social Influence

Question 581

Participants conformed because they doubted their own response. They reasoned that because of all the participants at the table were giving a certain answer that it must be correct This is known as:

Answer 581

Informational Social influence

Question 582

Ecological Validity

Answer 582

do the conditions of the study mimic those of the real world? if they do not, we can only make limited conclusions

Question 583

Demand characteristics

Answer 583

describes how the participants change behaviour to match expectations of experimenter. ie. conformed because that is what the experimenter wanted them to do.

Question 584

define social class

Answer 584

defined as a category of people who share a similar socioeconomic position in society

Question 585

how can social class be identified?

Answer 585

identified by looking at the economic opportunities, job positions, lifestyles, and attitudes/behaviours of a given slice of society.

Question 586

social cohesion

Answer 586

also known as social integration, refers to the solidarity and sense of connectedness among different social groups and social classes in society

Question 587

social stratification

Answer 587

focuses on social inequalities and studies the basic questions of who gets what and why

Question 588

SES

Answer 588

socioeconomic status (SES) depend on ascribed or achieved status an cause the emergence of status hierarchies

Question 589

ascribed status

Answer 589

derives from clearly identifiable characteristics such as age, gender and skin colour

Question 590

achieved status

Answer 590

acquired via direct, individual efforts

Question 591

education attainment

Answer 591

the highest degree obtained or number of years of education completed

Question 592

upper-middle vs. middle-middle vs. lower-middle

Answer 592

successful business and professional people (upper-middle) those who have been unable to achieve the upper-middle lifestyle because of education and economic shortage (middle-middle) and those who are skilled and semiskilled workers with fewer luxuries (lower-middle)

Question 593

the proportional improvement in healthcare as one moves up in socioeconomic status is called

Answer 593

socioeconomic gradient

Question 594

prestige

Answer 594

the amount of positive regard society has for a given person or idea

Question 595

power

Answer 595

described as the ability to affect other's behaviour through real or perceived rewards and punishments, and is based on unequal distribution of valued resources

Question 596

class consciousness

Answer 596

refers to the organization of the working class around shared goals and recognition of a need for collective political action

Question 597

what is one major barrier to class consciousness?

Answer 597

false consciousness - a misperception of one's actual position within society

Question 598

anomie

Answer 598

refers to a lack of widely accepted social norms and the breakdown of social bonds between an individual and society

Question 599

strain theory

Answer 599

focuses on how anomic conditions can lead to deviance

Question 600

examples of anomic conditions

Answer 600

excessive individualism social inequality isolation

Question 601

social solidarity

Answer 601

the sense of community and social cohesion

Question 602

what are the primary sources of social trust?

Answer 602

social norms of reciprocity social networks

Question 603

"i will scratch your back if you scratch mine" is an example of

Answer 603

social norms of reciprocity

Question 604

social capital

Answer 604

the investment people make in their society in return for economic or collective reward

Question 605

the greater the investment, the higher the level of ________

Answer 605

social integration

Question 606

social integration

Answer 606

the movement of new or underrepresented populations into a larger culture while maintaining their ethnic identities

Question 607

what are the types of social inequalities that social networks can create?

Answer 607

situational (socioeconomic advantage) and positional (based on how connected one is within a network and one's centrality within that network)

Question 608

privilege?

Answer 608

inequality in opportunity

Question 609

_____ social capital leads to higher social inequality

Answer 609

lower

Question 610

social capital

Answer 610

refers to the benefits one received from group association

Question 611

cultural capital

Answer 611

refers to the benefits one receives from knowledge, abilities and skills

Question 612

strong vs weak ties

Answer 612

strong: refers to group peer and kinship contacts which are quantitatively small but qualitatively powerful weak: refers to social connections that are personally superficial such as associates, but are large in number and provide connections to a wide range of other individuals

Question 613

those focusing on professional relationships are examples of strong or weak ties?

Answer 613

weak ties

Question 614

intersectionality

Answer 614

continued socioeconomic inequality is partially due to intersectionality which the compounding of disadvantage seen in individuals who belong to more than one underserved group

Question 615

social mobility

Answer 615

the result of an economic and occupational structure that allows one to acquire higher level employment opportunities given in proper credentials and experience requirements

Question 616

intra- vs inter generational mobility

Answer 616

intra: changes in social status that happen within a person's lifetime inter: changes in social status that happen from parents to children

Question 617

example of where intra- & inter generational mobility can occur?

Answer 617

USA " the land of opportunities"

Question 618

meritocracy

Answer 618

a social structure in which intellectual talent and achievement are means for a person to advance up the social ladder

Question 619

plutocracy

Answer 619

a country or society governed by the wealthy.

Question 620

does merit always guarantee social mobility?

Answer 620

no!

Question 621

vertical vs horizontal mobility?

Answer 621

vertical: the movement from one social class to another horizontal: change in occupation or lifestyle by an individual that keeps that individual within the same social class

Question 622

upward vs downward mobility?

Answer 622

upward: a positive change in a person's social status - resulting in higher position downward: a negative change in a person's social status

Question 623

poverty

Answer 623

defined by low socioeconomic status and a lack of possessions or financial resources

Question 624

social reproduction

Answer 624

a cycle of poverty explanation for social inequality the lifestyle of poverty, powerlessness, isolation and even apathy is handed down from one generation to another as a feature of the society

Question 625

structural poverty theory?

Answer 625

based on the concept of "holes" in the structure of society being more responsible for poverty than the actions of any individual

Question 626

poverty on an absolute vs relative level

Answer 626

absolute: poverty is a socioeconomic condition in which people do not have enough money or resources to maintain a quality of living that includes basic life necessities such as shelter, food, clothing and water relative: people have less income and wealth in comparison to the larger population in which they live

Question 627

poverty line

Answer 627

derived from the government's calculation of the minimum income requirements for families to acquire the minimum necessities of life

Question 628

poverty is highly related to ______

Answer 628

geography

Question 629

in the US, poverty is determined by the government's estimation of the minimum income requirements for families to acquire their minimum needs such as shelter and food. However, this is a problem, why?

Answer 629

a problem because it fails to account geographical variables that impact the value of money in different locations. certain areas are more expensive than the other

Question 630

social exclusion

Answer 630

arise from a sense of powerlessness when individuals who are poor or otherwise disadvantaged feel segregated and isolated from society

Question 631

spatial inequality

Answer 631

focuses on social stratification across territories and their populations

Question 632

example of how some cultures consider "home"

Answer 632

some consider it as the centre of family life, culture and entertainment others consider it as merely a stop-off point for eating and sleeping

Question 633

opportunities in urban vs rural environments

Answer 633

urban: they have more choices and less likely to fall into occupations because of "family business" rural: they peruse a specific occupation to carry on the family business

Question 634

suburbanization

Answer 634

the migration pattern of the middle class to suburban communities

Question 635

what can suburbanization lead to? explain

Answer 635

urban decay a perviously functional portion of a city deteriorates and becomes decrepit overtime

Question 636

urban renewal

Answer 636

city land is reclaimed and renovated for public or private use

Question 637

urban renewal is often fuelled by _____

Answer 637

gentrification

Question 638

gentrification

Answer 638

when upper and middle class populations begin to purchase and renovate neighbourhoods in deteriorated areas displacing the low SES population

Question 639

world system theory

Answer 639

categorize countries and emphasized the inequalities of the division of labor at the global level

Question 640

core vs peripheral vs semi-peripheral nations

Answer 640

core: focus on the higher skills and higher paying productions while exploiting peripheral nations for their lower-skilled productions semi-peripheral nations are midway between the two-these nations work toward becoming core nations, while having characteristics of peripheral nations

Question 641

social epidemiology

Answer 641

a branch of epidemiology that studies the ways in which health and disease correlate to social advantages and disadvantages

Question 642

incidence vs. prevalence

Answer 642

incidence: new cases/population at risk/time prevalence: total cases/total population/time

Question 643

morbidity vs mortality

Answer 643

morbidity: the burden or degree of illness associated with a given disease mortality: the deaths caused by a given disease

Question 644

morbidity vs mortality in males vs females

Answer 644

females have higher morbidity rates men have higher mortality rates

Question 645

welfare state

Answer 645

the system of government that protects the health and well being of its citizen

Question 646

second sickness

Answer 646

an exacerbation of health outcomes caused by social injustice

Question 647

Medicare vs Medicaid

Answer 647

Medicare: covers patients over the age of 65, those with end stage renal disease and those with ALS Medicaid: covers patients who are in significant financial need

Question 648

people achieve their social position based on their abilities and achievements ONLY, is known as

Answer 648

meritocracy

Question 649

compared to caste, class and meritocracy. which one has the highest degree of upward and downward social mobility

Answer 649

meritocracy

Question 650

background vs abilities in caste, class and meritocracy

Answer 650

caste: solely background class: background and ability meritocracy: solely ability

Question 651

limited to social group in which you are born is an example of class, caste or meritocracy?

Answer 651

caste

Question 652

which is more socially stable, caste, class or meritocracy? why?

Answer 652

caste since they remain in the same social group

Question 653

which is the least socially stable, caste, class or meritocracy?

Answer 653

meritocracy

Question 654

considering social mobility within someone's own lifetime is _______ while between generation is ____

Answer 654

intra inter generational

Question 655

Marxists theory

Answer 655

workers part of the working class do not recognize that they are being oppressed by this capitalistic model of working. owner's control the mean of production and get all of the benefits and all the reward