PSYCH U3 AOS2 - MEMORY Flashcards

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1
Q

define memory

A

Memory is an active information processing system that encodes, stores and recovers information when required.

Memory is a collection of complex interconnected systems that are not an exact replica of the world at the time they are recovered for use.

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2
Q

what are the three parts of making a memory?

A

Encoding: conversion of information into a usable form so that it can be neurologically represented (‘placed’) and stored in memory

Storage: retention of the encoded information over time

Retrieval: recovery of stored information for use when needed

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3
Q

what is the atkinson shiffrin model of memory?

A

Atkinson–Shiffrin multi-store model of memory: represents memory as consisting of three separate stores called sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory. Each store processes information in different ways and also differs in terms of its function (purpose/roles), capacity (the amount of information it can hold) and duration (the length of time it can hold information).

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4
Q

how is info transferred from SM to STM?

A

Sensory memory is the entry point for new information.
If we pay attention to any of the information in sensory memory, it is transferred to short-term memory.
Information received in short-term memory is processed (encoded) and stored for up to about 18–20 seconds

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5
Q

how is info transferred from STM to LTM?

A

The transfer of info from STM involves a further level of processing (encoding) for storage in long-term memory.

Information is transferred from short term memory to long term memory through encoding and elaborative rehearsal. New information is linked to information already stored in long term memory to assist with its storage and retrieval.

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6
Q

what is the role of the cerebral cortex in memory formation and storage?

A

Storage of all explicit (semantic and episodic) memories and implicit procedural memories after being temporarily stored in the cerebellum

Semantic memories tend to be stored throughout the cortex, most likely in both of the frontal and temporal lobes.
Episodic memories tend to also be stored throughout the cortex, perhaps especially in the right frontal lobe (particularly the prefrontal cortex just behind the forehead) and the right temporal lobe.

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7
Q

what is the role of the hippocampus in memory formation and storage?

A

The hippocampus turns STM into LTM, it is crucial in the consolidation of new explicit semantic and episodic memories (memories this statement). Transfers new memories to relevant parts of the cerebral cortex.

It also has an important role in spatial memory, which is an explicit memory for the physical location of objects in space. It is like our internal GPS allowing us to navigate from place to place and remember locations. Believed to be involved in the retrieval of spatial memories

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8
Q

what is the role of the amygdala in memory formation and storage?

A

The amygdala is crucial to the formation of implicit memories involving classically conditioned fear responses (emotional memories)

Through its role in signalling the hippocampus to encode and ensure long-term storage of the relevant emotional details during the memory consolidation process, the amygdala also contributes to the formation of explicit memories. This is apparent in a specific type of episodic memory known as a flashbulb memory.

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9
Q

what is the role of the cerebellum in the formation and storage of memories?

A

Directly involved in the encoding and temporary storage of implicit procedural memories for these and numerous other motor skills. It is crucial for motor learning and the execution of voluntary movements, but NOT their long-term storage because well-learned motor responses are believed to be stored in the cerebral cortex like many other types of memories.

It does form & stores implicit memories of simple reflexes acquired through classical conditioning

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10
Q

what is recall

A

Recall involves reproducing information stored in memory (provides evidence that something learned was retained).

It is the least effective method of demonstrating the existence of information in the LTM. least sensitive retrieval method

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11
Q

what is recognition?

A

involves identifying (‘recognizing’) the original, learnt information (often from a list of alternatives - think MCQ’s).
This is easier because there are retrieval cues that serve as prompts or reminders.

It is therefore more effective than recall at demonstrating the presence of information in the LTM, as it provides retrieval cues.

2nd most sensitive method

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12
Q

what is relearning?

A

learning information again that has been previously learned and therefore stored in long-term memory; also called savings
If learnt more quickly the second time, it is assumed that some info must have been retained (‘saved’) from the first learning experience, whether the individual realises it or not.

Savings Score: amount of time saved when an information is relearnt (expressed as a percentage)

It is more effective than recall and recognition at demonstrating the existence of information in LTM

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13
Q

what is the savings score formula?

A

time for og learning - time for relearning
—————————————– x 100
time for og learning

                     OR

no. of original trials - no. of relearning trials
——————————————- x 100
no. of relearning trials

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14
Q

what is reconstruction?

A

Memory reconstruction generally involves combining stored information with other available information to form what is believed to be a more coherent or complete memory.

What is retrieved is not always a perfect reproduction of what happened at the time of encoding.
During reconstruction, if the memory has gaps or is not clear, we tend to add information that helps ensure the retrieved memory is complete and ‘makes sense’.

  1. original long term memory of the event exists
  2. new info introduced through other events or sources
  3. this new information is integrated with the origianl memory and reconsolidated into long term memory
  4. resulting in retrieval of a reconstructed version of the original memory, showing that memory is fallible and canbe potentially inaccurate.
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15
Q

how can errors occur in reconstruction?

A

When we form a LTM, we actively encode and organise the elements and details of the experience throughout different areas of the brain.

When we attempt to access the memory, we do not retrieve a simple ‘readout’ of the entire memory, but rather the encoded elements and actively reconstruct the memory. In doing so, various factors can cause errors and distortions.

With repeated retrieval, the memory is subject to further distortion and it becomes harder to distinguish the details of what actually happened in the original encodings from what was added later.

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16
Q

define brain trauma?

A

Brain trauma is an ‘umbrella’ term that refers to a brain injury that is acquired after birth and impairs the normal functioning of the brain. The effect can be mild or severe, temporary or permanent.

External (car or sporting accident, assault to the head, brain surgery etc.)

Internal (tumours, infections, chronic alcoholism or neurological diseases such as Alzherimer’s)

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17
Q

define neurodegenerative disease?

A

A neurodegenerative disease is a disorder characterised by the progressive decline in the structure, activity and function of brain tissue. Essentially, neurons within the brain tissue gradually become damaged or deteriorate (‘degenerate’) and lose their function.

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18
Q

effect of surgical removal/damage on hippocampus?

A

Inability to form and retrieve new long-term explicit memories.

People with damage to the hippocampus will be able to carry out procedural skills because this is implicit memory. However, they will not remember that they have done it because the memory of the event is an explicit memory.

Surgical removal of hippocampus has little to no effect on STM encoding, function, or storage

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19
Q

effect of surgical removal/damage on amygdala?

A

Trouble forming and retrieving implicit, emotional memories (i.e. fear responses).

no effect on STM

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20
Q

effect of surgical removal/damage on cerebral cortex?

A

Trouble storing and retrieving explicit, semantic and episodic long-term memories

may impair transfer of information into and out of STM

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21
Q

effect of surgical removal/damage on cerebellum?

A

Trouble forming and retrieving implicit, simple motor responses/procedural memories.

no effect on STM or explicit LTM

22
Q

what is a retrieval cue?

A

A retrieval cue is any stimulus that assists the process of locating and recovering information stored in memory. A retrieval cue acts as a prompt or hint that guides the search and recovery process within LTM.

One of the most effective ways of improving memory retrieval from LTM is to recreate the conditions – both external (context) and internal environment (state) – that were present when the memory was formed or encoded.

23
Q

what is a context dependent cue?

A

environmental cues in the specific situation (‘context’) where a memory was formed that act as retrieval cues to help access the memories formed in that context. These cues may include the sights, sounds and smells within the specific situation.

24
Q

what is a state dependant cue?

A

associated with an individual’s internal physiological and/or psychological state at the time the memory was formed, which act as retrieval cues to help access those memories. Eg. sad, happy, intoxicated etc.

25
Q

what are two limitations of the retrieval failure theory?

A

Doesn’t account for:

Disrupted or lost memories as a consequence of brain trauma (e.g. brain injury) or a neurodegenerative disease (e.g. Alzheimer’s disease).

Memories interfering with one another due to the similarity of information being retrieved.

26
Q

what is maintenance rehearsal?

A

Maintenance rehearsal involves repeating the information being remembered over and over again so that it can be retained (or ‘maintained’) in STM.
Repetition can be vocal, or in your head. If not interrupted it can be retained in STM indefinitely.
Does not always lead to long term retention. Useful for coping with limited duration of STM.

27
Q

what is elaborative rehearsal?

A

Elaborative rehearsal is the process of linking new information in a meaningful way with other new information or information already stored in LTM to aid in its storage and future retrieval from LTM.
Requires deeper processing (semantic processing) than maintenance rehearsal.
Means you ‘flesh out’ the concept trying to be stored more, this helps you add meaning to the material to encode it more deeply, you may make personal references to the material and it requires more effort.

28
Q

why is elaborative rehearsal more effective than maintenance?

A

Elaborative rehearsal (a more active process) is more effective than maintenance for remembering new info as it is encoded more deeply as more meaning is added.

29
Q

what is the serial position effect?

A

The serial position effect is a research finding that free recall is better for items at the end and beginning of the list than for items in the middle of the list. More specifically, the recall of items tends to be best for items at the end, and then the beginning, and worst for items around the middle

30
Q

what is the primacy effect?

A

superior recall for items at the beginning of a list (in immediate recall) due to entering an ‘empty’ STM and having full attention, and having enough time to be rehearsed and transferred to LTM.

31
Q

what is the recency effect?

A

superior recall for items at the end of a list (in immediate recall) due to still being in the STM in maintenance rehearsal. (Recency effect will not occur if there is a delay over 30s).

32
Q

why does serial position effect occur?

A

If recall occurs immediately after the list is learned, the last few items are remembered best because they are still in STM.
The first few items in a list are remembered well probably because they received more attention and rehearsal than other items and are therefore transferred into LTM.

Items around the middle of a list are presented too late to be adequately rehearsed and transferred to LTM and too early to be held in STM without rehearsal, so they are more likely to be forgotten (unless they are distinctive in some way).

33
Q

how does primacy effect show evidence for stm and ltm stores?

A

superior ability to recall items at the beginning of a list indicates that these items have been successfully transferred to long term memory

34
Q

what did Loftus’ studies show?

A

Elizabeth Loftus has found that eye-witness testimony is not always accurate because eyewitnesses reconstruct their memories to include new information that is learned after an event, or due to leading questions that contain misleading information.

35
Q

what are leading questions?

A

A leading question has content or is phrased in such a way as to suggest what answer is desired or to lead to the desired answer. They contain presupposition which is information that should or must be true in order for the question to make sense

36
Q

conclusion and implication of Loftus research?

A

Conclusion: Loftus’s research clearly demonstrates that eye-witness testimony cannot be regarded as infallible (incapable of being wrong), even when the witness is making every possible effort to be truthful. Eye-witness testimony can be distorted by leading questions that contain ‘misleading’ information.

Implication: New information acquired after the original experience is integrated with information in the original memory, resulting in recall of a reconstructed or altered version of the original memory.

37
Q

what is the function of short term memory?

A

Receives information from sensory memory and transfers information to and from LTM
Maintains information in conscious awareness for immediate use

38
Q

what is the capacity and duration of short term memory?

A

CAPACITY: 7 ± 2 pieces of information

DURATION: Temporary: 18–20 seconds, possibly up to 30 seconds
Longer if renewed

39
Q

what is the function of sensory memory?

A

Receives sensory info from environment
Enables perceptual continuity of the world around us.

40
Q

what is the capacity and duration of sensory memory?

A

CAPACITY
Vast potentially unlimited

DURATION
About 0.2 - 4 seconds
Echoic: 3 - 4 seconds
Iconic: 0.2 - 0.4 seconds

41
Q

what is the function, capacity, and duration of LTM?

A

FUNCTION:
Information storage for re-access and use at a later time

CAPACITY:
Vast, potentially unlimited

DURATION:
Potentially permanent. Some info may be lost or inaccessible.

42
Q

what is explicit memory?

A

Explicit memory involves memory that occurs when information can be consciously or intentionally retrieved and stated.
When explicit memory is used, there is a deliberate and conscious attempt to retrieve previously stored information.

43
Q

what are the two types of explicit memory?

A

Episodic memory: Memory of personally experienced events & often include details of the time, place and psych / phys state when the event occurred.

Semantic memory: Memory of facts & knowledge about the work (knowledge learnt in schools, everyday facts, meaning of words, rules). Unlike episodic, these memories are not tagged with details of time & place

44
Q

what is implicit memory?

A

Implicit memories (non-declarative) are memories that don’t require conscious or intentional retrieval such as motor skills like brushing your teeth, riding a bike or classically conditioned responses such as fears / phobias. The term implicit is used because the memory can be implied or inferred from the observable response

45
Q

what are the two types of implicit memory?

A

Procedural: Memory of motor skills and actions that have been learned previously. How to do something. Memories are demonstrated through performance & include what can be called skill, motor, body or muscle memories. Typically require little or no intentional / conscious attempt to retrieve.

Classically conditioned memories: Memories classically conditioned particularly involving fear or anxiety are a type of implicit memory. This includes taste aversion and conditioned reflexes

46
Q

what is free recall?

A

involves reproducing as much information as possible in no particular order without the use of any specific cue.

eg. being able to list names of tv show characters

47
Q

what is serial recall?

A

Serial recall involves reproducing information in the order in which it was learned eg. recalling order that you visited countries in on a holiday

48
Q

what is cued recall?

A

Cued recall involves the use of specific prompts (‘cues’) to aid retrieval.
eg. naming characters in a tv show from a photo of them.

49
Q

how does recency effect show evidence for STM and LTM memory stores?

A

superior recall for items at the end of a list indicates that these items are still in short term memory and the fact that recency effect does not occur if there is delayed recall (but primacy effect does occur) supports the idea that STM and LTM are separate systems

50
Q

what is anterograde amnesia?

A

Anterograde amnesia: loss of memory only for information or events occurring after the trauma that caused the amnesia
They lose the ability to form or store new LTM. Can’t remember what has happened SINCE the trauma/injury.

Often found to be associated with damage to the hippocampus. I.e. unable to consolidate new long-term explicit memories.
People with anterograde amnesia often DO NOT have a problem forming new implicit memories

51
Q

what is Alzheimer’s?

A

Alzheimer’s disease is a type of dementia characterised by the gradual widespread degeneration of brain neurons, progressively causing memory decline, deterioration of cognitive and social skills, and personality changes.

Explicit memories are primarily affected.
Implicit memories tend to remain intact or are less severely affected, although this depends on the brain regions that have been damaged and the extent of the damage.
Post-mortems of people who have died with Alzheimer’s disease exposed the area of the brain that appears most affected is the hippocampus.

52
Q

what three brain changes happen in Alzheimer’s disease?

A

Amyloid Plaques: proteins that form among axon terminals and interfere with communication between neurons. Sticky, abnormal clusters of protein fragments forming between neurons, destroying the synapses and the transmission of neural impulses - outside neurons

Neurofibrillary tangles: abnormal build-up of protein inside neurons (associated with the death of brain cells).

Lower levels of memory neurotransmitters: especially acetylcholine