Psychological influences on the individual (P2) Flashcards
(131 cards)
1
Q
What does trait theory state?
A
That an individual is born with innate characteristic ,called traits, that are stable, enduring and stay the same in different situations.
2
Q
What are the characteristics of an extrovert?
A
. outgoing gregarios, socialble
, low levels of natural arousal ( Reticular Activating System)
. seek change and excitement
3
Q
What are the characteristics of an introvert?
A
. naturally high levels of arousal (Reticular Activating system)
. don’t affiliate, prefer isolation
. tend to shy and reserved
4
Q
What is the definition of the social learning approach?
A
This theory suggests that behaviour is learned from significant others through socialisation.
5
Q
What are the four stages of the social learning approach?
A
Observe-identify-reinforce-copy
6
Q
What is the definition of the interactionist perspective?
A
A theory that combines trait and social learning to predict behaviour in a specific situation
7
Q
What is Lewin’s formula for the interactionist theory?
A
B f(PxE)
8
Q
What does Hollander’s concentric ring model say?
A
The more the environment has an influence, the more the behaviour is likely to change.
9
Q
What are the three rings of the Hollander model?
A
1: The core
2: Typical responses
3: Role related behaviour
10
Q
Explain the core ring in the Hollander model? and give an example
A
Stable and solid and not likely to change. Beliefs and values are underlying. e.g. Footballer has core belief of a strong work ethic and to try hard every game.
11
Q
Explain the typical response ring in the Hollander model? and give an example
A
The usual response that a player would make in a given situation. e.g. attacking footballer would typically make runs when a ball is played through
12
Q
Explain the role related behaviour ring in the Hollander model? and give an example
A
Further changes to behaviour as the situation demands. e.g a winger may help out the defence if the team is holding out for a lead.
13
Q
What are three ways a coach could use the interactionist approach to improve performance?
A
- Coach could predict potential unacceptable behaviour and could remove the player from the situation
- Coach could identify situations that cause unacceptable actions and then replicate it in training so player can learn to cope
- Coach could use it to change player behaviour in specific situations through advice in situations where the player may be anxious
14
Q
What is the definition of an attitude?
A
A value aimed at an attitude object
15
Q
How are attitudes formed?
A
Socialisation from significant others and experiences
16
Q
What are some variables/factors that influence an attitude? and give an example
A
Role models and significant others, media, school, peers, environment, past experiences. e.g a positive experience in Physical Education during school may develop a positive attitude towards physical activity in the future.
17
Q
What makes up the triadic model of an attitude?
A
The cognitive, affective and behavioural components.
18
Q
Explain the cognitive part of the triadic model? and give an example
A
The most deep-rooted part of an individual’s attitude that represents their beliefs. e.g A individual believes that playing sport is good for an healthy, active lifestyle
19
Q
Explain the affective part of the triadic model and give an example.
A
This is the feelings and the emotions of the player and how those feelings are interpreted. e.g an individual enjoys taking part in active leisure
20
Q
Explain the behavioural part of an attitude and give an example
A
This part of an attitude reflects the actions and habits of a performer. e.g the person regularly participates in regular exercise
21
Q
What two methods can be used to change a performers negative attitude?
A
Cognitive dissonance and persuasive communication
22
Q
What is cognitive dissonance?
A
New information given to the performer to cause unease and motivate change.
23
Q
What is the first way a coach use cognitive dissonance? with example
A
- new information given to the performer to prompt change in their attitude. e.g. coach pointing out to a player the benefits of a healthy diet and the marginal gains it can bring
24
Q
What is the 2nd way a coach can use cognitive dissonance? and give an example
A
By making the activity fun and varying practice it may change a players negative attitude to training.
25
What is the 3rd way a coach can use cognitive dissonance?
Operant conditioning- using rewards as reinforcement may increase turnout at training/ games for player of the week award.
26
What is the 4th way cognitive dissonance can be used by a coach?
Coach could bring in a specialist or role model player from another club to encourage training participation.
27
What needs to be considered by a coach to use persuasive communication to change an attitude?
. The communication needs to be relevant and important and the message understood.
. The message giver needs to be of high status so the impact of the message is high.
. Timing is also important-not after match
28
What is arousal?
A level of activation, a degree of readiness to perform.
29
What is drive theory?
Suggests that as arousal increases, so does performance in a linear fashion where P=f(D X H)
30
What is the link between drive theory and the dominant response?
At high arousal, less information is processed and performers therefore perform their dominant response.
31
What is the inverted-U theory?
Theory linking performance and arousal by stating that increased arousal improves performance up to an optimum point at moderate levels of arousal.
32
What three factors affect where a performers optimum level of arousal is?
. Stage of development
. Personality
. skill classification
33
How does the stage of development affect a performers optimal level of arousal?
Autonomous performers will require higher levels of arousal compared to cognitive performers
34
How does personality affect a performers optimal level of arousal?
Extroverts would require high levels of arousal compared to introverts as extroverts have low levels of natural adrenaline.
35
How does the task affect a performers optimal level of arousal?
. A gross skill can be performed at higher levels of arousal than a fine skill which needs to have calm.
. Complex skills work best at low levels of arousal as they need to process lots of information. Simple skills require less information.
36
What is catastrophe theory?
The theory suggesting that increased arousal improves performance to an optimum point but there is a dramatic reduction in performance when arousal increases past the optimum.
37
What is the zone of optimal function theory?
Adaptation of the inverted-U theory but rather than an optimal point of arousal there is a zone or maximum confidence an control.
38
How can performers find their zone?
Techniques such as relaxation, positive self talk and visualisation.
39
What do performers experience when in the zone of optimal functioning?
. effortless flow
. state of supreme confidence and remains calm under pressure
. feels in total control of their actions
40
What is a peak flow experience?
The ultimate intrinsic experience felt by athletes from a positive mental attitude, with supreme confidence, focus and efficiency.
41
How might a peak flow experience be disrupted?
. Poor mental preparation and failure to reach arousal levels
. Environmental influences- pressure from the crowd
. Injury or fatigue would disrupt experience
42
What is anxiety?
A state of nervousness and worry, a negative response to a sporting situation caused by irrational thinking.
43
What is competitive trait anxiety?
A disposition to suffer from nervousness in most situations regardless of importance.
44
What is competitive state anxiety?
A nervous response to a specific sporting situation
45
What is an example of competitive state anxiety?
When a football player takes a penalty in a football match they may experience a temporary moment of high anxiety due to the responsibility.
46
What is the link between state and trait anxiety?
An individual with high trait is more likely to experience state anxiety
47
What is cognitive anxiety?
A psychological response and refers to the irrational thinking and worries that may occur during and before performance.
48
What is an example of cognitive anxiety?
The feeling of lack of ability to defend against a good attacker causing nervousness and a loss of concentration.
49
What is somatic anxiety?
A physiological response of the body to an individual's cognitive anxiety
50
What are some examples of somatic anxiety?
increased heart rate, sweating, muscular tension, sickness
51
What is the graphical representation of somatic and cognitive anxiety in time up to performance?
. Somatic anxiety tend to increase just before performance and reduces as the activity begins.
. Cognitive anxiety is present much earlier is usually always higher than somatic but follows the same shape during performance
52
What are the three anxiety measure?
Questionnaires, observation and physiological testing
53
What are the advantages of a questionnaire?
Cheap and efficient allowing a large number of players to be assessed quickly
54
What are the disadvantages of a questionnaire?
. Players may give the socially desirable answer rather than the one they believe
. Answers may be depend on mood state- answer after win/loss
. Questions may be asked with bias to a particular answer
. Long questionnaires may cause rushed answers
55
What is an example of a questionnaire in sport?
Sports Competitive Anxiety Test (SCAT)
56
What is the method of observation for anxiety measurements?
Gaining a measure of anxiety simply by watching the performer
57
What are the advantages of observation?
. True to life
58
What are the disadvantages of observation?
. Based on opinions of observer (subjective)
. Time consuming- may need numerous observers and knowledge of the performer
. May actually cause anxiety (social inhibition)
59
What are the advantages of physiological tests for anxiety?
. They are factual so that comparisons can be made easier
| . Can be measured during training and the game
60
What are the disadvantages of physiological tests for anxiety?
. Cost of equipment means only top level sport can use it
. May restrict movement
. The awareness of the device may increase anxiety so false readings
61
What is aggression?
The intent to harm outside the rules; hostile behaviour
62
What is assertion?
Well motivated behaviour within the rules
63
What is an example of aggression?
Zinedine Zidane headbutt in 2006 world cup final
64
What are the characteristics of assertion?
. controlled
. well motivated
. not intended to harm
65
What is an example of assertion?
Hard and fair tackle in rugby
66
What is instrumental aggression?
The overlap between aggression and assertion where there is an intent to harm but is within the rules e.g rugby
67
What is the instinct theory of aggression?
The evolutionary theory which claims that all performers are born with the aggressive instinct that will surface with enough provocation.
68
What is an example of instinct theory?
Aggression may surface after a bad foul is committed where their is a threat of injury
69
What is the limitation of instinct theory?
Not all aggression is instinctive and aggressive-some is learned and premeditated
70
What is the frustration-aggression hypothesis ?
Theory that states that aggression occurs when goals are blocked and the frustration leads to aggression.
71
What is an example of the frustration aggression hypothesis?
A player may be fouled when running through on goal which would build frustration and could lead to an aggressive act such as a push
72
What is catharsis?
A term for the cleansing of the emotions. If an aggressive intent is given an outlet, then the aggressive drive will be reduced.
73
What is the aggressive cue hypothesis?
Suggests that aggression is caused by a learned trigger/cues.
74
What is an example of the aggressive cue hypothesis?
At a corner in football, defensive and attacking players may start to push and shove and lead to aggressive acts
75
What is social leaning theory for aggression? And give an example
Learning aggression through associating and copying others. E.g noticing that your captain regularly discreetly fouls the opponent which is unnoticed by the ref and appears to unsettle the opponent which prompts the player to copy.
76
What can coaches, players and refs do to reduce aggression?
```
. Do not reinforce aggressive acts in training
. Punish aggression with fines
. Punish players by sending them off
. Substitute aggressive player
. Reinforce non-aggressive acts
. Channel aggression into assertion
```
77
What is the definition of motivation?
The drive to succeed
78
What is intrinsic motivation? And give an example?
Drive to succeed coming from within. E.g feeling of satisfaction after a winning a 100m race
79
What is extrinsic motivation and give an example?
Motivation provided from an outside source. E.g trophies of crowd encouragement.
80
What are the two forms of rewards from extrinsic motivation?
Tangible and intangible rewards
81
What are tangible rewards?
Physical rewards that can be touched or held e.g a trophy
82
What are intangible rewards?
Non physical rewards e.g praise and encouragement from coach or crowd for example
83
What are the potential problems of extrinsic motivation?
. Over use may cause a loss in incentive and value to win
. May not play for true value of the sport
. Pressure on players to win may result in cheating and bending of the rules
84
What tactics and strategies should a coach use to maintain intrinsic and extrinsic motives?
. Offer rewards and incentives early on 'player of the week'
. Point out health benefits of the task
. Attribute success internally
. Setting goals and targets
85
What two behavioral effects are there due to others present?
Social facilitation and inhibition
86
What are the four types of 'others' suggested by Zajonc who are present when watching sport?
. The audience
. The co-actors
. The competitors
. The social reinforcers
87
Explain the audience who watch sport?
Those people who are watching, either as spectators or from outside stadium. The presence causes pressure.
88
Explain the co-actors when playing sport?
Those who are doing the same task but are not involved in direct competition. Another cyclist passing by while on a training ride.
89
Explain the competitors when playing sport?
Those who are in direct competition. e.g fellow runners in 100m race
90
Explain the social reinforcers when playing sport?
Those who are direct influence on the event such as a coach.
91
Which others are more passive or active influence on performance?
Audience and co-actors are more passive on performance compared to competitors and social reinforcers
92
What is social inhibition?
The negative effect of the presence of others on performance.
93
What is social facilitation?
The positive effect of the presence of others on performance.
94
What factors may cause social inhibition or facilitation?
. stage or learning
| . Difficulty of the skill
95
What is the link between drive theory and others being present in sport?
As the presence of others increases arousal it ca have the same effect as arousal in drive theory. Therefore experienced players will result in the well learned good response and less experienced will be the opposite.
96
What is evaluation apprehension?
The perceived fear of being judged.
97
Who can cause evaluation apprehension?
. Watched by a pro scout
| . parent who is critical
98
How can a coach or player prevent social inhibition?
. Get the players familiar with playing in front of a crowd (familiarisation)- train with crowd
. Gradually introduce evaluation- informal to formal
. Improve focus and concentration- selective attention
99
What are the characteristics of a team and explain?
. Collective identity same coloured training kit
. Interactions- operation in individual role and combinations with teammates
. Communications- verbal and non verbal communication
. Shared goal or purpose- prospect of achieving success together maintains motivation
100
What are the four stages of group formation? and explain
. Forming- group comes together and gets to know each other
. Storming- potential conflict when individuals may compete with others to establish position e.g no1 striker
. Norming- once conflicts are resolved, team begins to settle down and co-operate. Cohesion develops
. Performing- all players now interact and work together to achieve their goal
101
What is team cohesion?
The tendency for individuals to work together to achieve their goals, the forces that keep the group members on task.
102
What is the definitive of Carron's antecedents?
The factors that might influence a cohesion.
103
What are Carron's antecedents?
. Environmental factors
. Personal factors
. Leadership factors
. Team factors
104
Explain the environmental factors of Carron's antecedents?
Includes size of the group and time available. More time= more time to learn each others roles. Larger group=more productivity but also increased risk of social loafing and the Ringelmann effect developing. Motivation may be reduced and sub-divisions may form.
105
Explain the personal factors factors of Carron's antecedents?
The similarity of group members in terms of their aspirations, opinions and values, content in role and fitness
106
Explain the leadership factors of Carron's antecedents?
. The leadership style chosen by the coach or the captain is vital.
. Leader relations
107
Explain the team factors of Carron's antecedents?
.Desire for success
. Team ability
. Shared experiences
108
What are the two types of cohesion?
Task and social cohesion
109
What is task cohesion?
Individuals working together to achieve an end result.
110
What is social cohesion?
Individuals relating to each other to interact in the group even out of the team environment.
111
What is the importance of social and task cohesion?
. For results it is good to have both
. Social may produce sub divisions
. Task is most important and can override social cohesion problems as drive for success is more important than social issues
112
What is the Steiner model of productivity?
Actual productivity=Potential productivity - Losses due to faulty processes
113
What is the actual productivity?
The outcome of group performance.
114
What is potential productivity?
The best performance based on player ability and group resources.
115
What are faulty processes?
The things that go wrong to reduce group outcomes and prevent group potential being reached.
116
What are the two types of faulty processes?
Co-ordination and motivational problems
117
What is co-ordination faulty processes? and give an example
When players fail to employ coach tactics or don't listen. e.g playing long ball when the coach said to play out from the back.
. Lack of interaction needed for success
118
What is motivational faulty processes?
When players suffer from too much or too little arousal meaning a reduction in effort and concentration. Including social loafing and the Ringelmann effect.
119
What is social loafing?
Individual loss of motivation in a team player due to a lack of performance identification when individual efforts are not recognised.
120
What are the causes of social loafing?
. May be caused by a lack of performance
. Negative attitude e.g in the position they play in
. Poor leadership isolating some players, poor instructions given
121
What is the Ringelmann effect?
When group performance decreases with group size
122
What can be done to reduce social loafing?
. Set individual goals
. Set more challenging goals
.
123
What are the benefits of goal setting?
. Increasing motivation and promote task persistence
. Increase confidence
. Regulate and sustain effort- greater effort just before competition
124
What is an outcome/product goal? and give an example
A goal set against the performance of others and based on a result . e.g setting a target to finish in the top four
125
What is a task orientated goal? and give an example
Concerned with improvements in performance/technique and not compared to other performers. e.g target of mastering five different moves to beat a defender within two months
126
What is a performance goal? and give an example
When the athlete sets a goal to better their own performance rather than comparing to others. e.g achieving a personal best time
127
What is a process goal? and give an example.
Concerned with improvements in technique. e.g better swimming arm action
128
What are the benefits of performance goals?
Reduce anxiety in competition and provide more constant motivation
129
What are the disadvantages of outcome goals?
More likely to cause stress, especially if the prize is not gained.
130
What is the SMARTER principle?
. Specific-to performer and sport
. Measurable- statistics allows progress to be seen
. Achievable- should be able to reach their goal
. Realistic-within performers ability
. Time-bound-clear deadline to gauge progress and maintain motivation
. Evaluate- looks at successes and failures of targets to then set better targets
. Re-do- readjusted targets can be redone to achieve success
131
What are the two terms which determine whether people believe there is a link between personality and behaviour or not?
Sceptical-no
| Credulous-yes
