PSYCHOLOGY 100 Flashcards
(245 cards)
1
Q
PSYCHE
A
soul, life, breath. now simply connotes to “mind”
2
Q
LOGOS
A
“reasoned discourse”, “principle or order and knowledge”
3
Q
RATIONALISM
A
nativist view that knowledge is inborn ; world understood independent of the senses via intuition.
4
Q
EMPIRICISM
A
John Locke’s TABULA RASA (blank slate) ; world is understood as being constructed from the senses.
5
Q
PSYCHOLOGICAL SCHOOLS
A
focused on bodily processes and began the study of psychophysics.
6
Q
WILHELM WUNDT (1832-1920)
A
established the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig in 1879. Founder of modern psychology.
7
Q
IDEALISM
A
reality is fundamentally a construction of the mind.
mind is primary, matter is secondary
8
Q
MATERIALISM
A
reality is fundamentally a construction of matter.
matter is primary, mind is secondary
9
Q
Who is most closely associated with the notion that the subject matter of psychology should be the scientific study of conscious experience?
A
Wilhelm Wundt
10
Q
STRUCTURALISM
A
the study of psychology was the study of the elements of consciousness
11
Q
INTROSPECTION
A
primary method for the study of consciousness for structuralists.
12
Q
FUNCTIONALISM
A
psychology should be the study of the purpose of consciousness , rather than the contents or structure.
it was more Darwinian in its approach
13
Q
WILLIAM JAMES
A
promoted Functionalism
14
Q
Which school of psychology suggests psychologists should study only what can be objectively observed?
A
Behaviourism
15
Q
BEHAVIOURISM
A
a theoretical orientation based on the premise that scientific psychology should study only observable behaviour.
16
Q
WHO WAS BEHIND BEHAVIOURISM?
A
John Watson
17
Q
STIMULUS-RESPONSE COUPLINGS
(S-O-R)
A
organisms repeat behaviours that lead to positive outcomes and avoid repeating those that lead to negative outcomes.
18
Q
Who is most closely associated with the concept that unconscious motivations influence our overt behaviour?
A
Sigmund Freud
19
Q
Skinner believed that…
A
any behaviour was ultimately trained by rules of reinforcement that could be manipulated.
20
Q
COGNITIVE SCIENCE
A
study of mental systems or mental structures
21
Q
Noam Chomsky argued that…
A
language cannot be a result of S-O-R, and that humans posses and deep, generative, universal grammar that defines rules for building rules of language.
22
Q
Who stated that people do not have free will, because behaviour is fully controlled by external stimuli?
A
B.F Skinner
23
Q
BIOPSYCHOLOGY
A
emphasizes the genetic, hormonal and neural psychological processes.
24
Q
SIGMUND FREUD
A
popularized the concept of the unconscious mind.
25
PSYCHOANALYSIS
a therapeutic technique for finding and resolving through dialog with patients.
26
LAYERS OF THE MIND:
ID, EGO, SUPEREGO
27
ID
impulsive, instinctual desires and drives
28
EGO
"realistic" balancer of id and superego
29
SUPEREGO
culturally-internalized moralizer
30
Introduced INTROVERSION AND EXTROVERSION
Carl Jung
31
HUMANISM
emerged as a branch of psychology with an optimistic growth perspective focused on the unique quality of humans.
32
Humanistic Psychology was introduced by...
Carl Rogers
33
"Self-Concept" today called..
"Self-Concept" today called..
34
Abraham Maslow deveopled...
Hierarchy of needs
35
SELF-ACTUALIZATION
desire to accomplish everything that one can, to become the most that one can be
36
MASLOW'S 5 HIERARCHY OF NEEDS:
1. Self-actualization
2. Esteem needs
3. Love and belongingess
4. Safety & Security needs
5. Physiological needs
37
Which school of psychology emphasizes the unique qualities of individual people, and suggests that humans experience freedom and have a propensity towards personal growth?
Humanism
38
Most psychological research were conducted on...
WEIRD people (Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich and Democratic)
39
One of the most recent branches of psychology that takes a Darwinian approach?
Evolutionary Psychology
40
During World War II, many academic psychologists were needed to serve other roles. Which of the following roles was most likely for a psychologist at that time?
clinician
41
Evolutionary Psychology emphasizes the ecological adaptability of psychological traits through...
Natural selection and Sexual selection
42
Which of the following would least likely be studied by a cognitive psychologist?
a. ) how we remember things
b. )how children develop language
c. )how we perceive colour
d. )how people reason to solve problems
C. ) how we perceive colour
43
Which group has traditionally been overrepresented in psychological research?
WIERD people, White males
44
Which “newer” area of psychology is most similar to the “older” school of thought known as functionalism?
Evolutionary Psychology; similar Darwinian approach
45
The most modernized branch of psychology concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of psychological problems and disorders?
Clinical Psychology
46
Before is changed focus after WWII veterans suffered from PTSD, what was Clinical Psych. originally applied towards?
school children's behaviour deviance
47
This is the primary tool used by clinicians
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder (DSM)
48
Which career setting is most common for a psychologist?
a. )elementary schools
b. )military
c. )hospitals or clinics
d. )independent private practice
D.) independent private practice
49
Branch of psychology that emphasizes the characteristics, traits and conditions necessary for achieving a fulfilling human existence?
Positive Psychology
50
Positive Psychology was started by?
Martin Seligman
51
Positive Psychology's goal is an attempt to ...
promote desirable psychological experiences and traits rather than focusing on the scientific description of the mind.
52
Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi
introduced the concept of FLOW
53
Christopher Peterson
emphasized VIRTUES AND OPTIMISM
54
Barbara Fredrickson
promotes the practice of LOVING-KINDNESS MEDITATION (METTA)
55
Which approach do researchers in psychology take to address the fact that our experiences of the world are highly subjective?
They consistently apply the scientific method
56
Transpersonal Psychology
Branch of psychology that focuses on mystical, religious and altered states of consciousness
57
Transpersonal Psychology is based on the primise that...
individuals can have transcendent peak experiences.
58
Integral Psychology
developed by Ken Wilber as an attempt at a kind of psychological "theory of everything"
59
Proposed by Wilber as basic conceptual building blocks connoting that something is both whole and part of a greater whole
Holons
60
Theory that biologically expresses Holons...
Multilevel Selection Theory
61
Developmental Psychology
Tracks the minds of children through to adolescence and adulthood, emphasizing stages and progression
62
One of the founders of Developmental Psychology
Jean Piaget
63
What are the Piaget stages?
Stage 1 – Sensorimotor stage (birth until “language acquisition”)
Stage 2 – Pre-operational stage (~2-7 years of age) Stage 3 – Concrete operational stage (~7 years until adolescence)
Stage 4 – Formal operational stage (adolescence until adulthood)
64
Social Psychology
The branch of psychology that focuses on relationships
65
If you reward yourself for achieving study goals, which concept are you applying?
Behaviour Modification
66
Intrapersonal
social attitudes and self-concept
67
Interpersonal
conformity and attraction
68
According to research, what proportion of crucial ideas from a lecture are found in the average student’s notes?
less than 40%
69
Idea that people socially are embedded in small world networks
Six Degrees of Separation
70
The number of people you are on personal terms with at any given time
Dunbar Number
71
Based on an evolutionary analysis of spatial skills, what would you predict a woman will be able to do better than most men?
a. ) mentally rotate visual images
b. )remember locations
c. ) read a map
d. ) learn a maze
B.) Remember locations
72
Scientific Experiment
Is the most powerful tool that exists for understanding objective phenomena
73
An empirical claim must in principle be subjected to a test that could falsify it.
Falsification
74
Who developed falsification?
Karl Popper
75
The accumulation of empirical anomalies in theories
Paradigm Shifts
76
Which of the following includes IQ score, age, weight, grade point average, and income?
constants
variables
correlations
statistics
Variables
77
Goals of the Scientific Enterprise: (3)
1. Measurement and Description
2. Understanding and Prediction
3. Application and Control
78
Finding coherent narratives for the objects of disciplines
Understanding and Prediction
79
Quantification, attempt to find the most useful conceptual dimensions and how to measure them
Measurement and Description
80
Application of knowledge for some sociopolitical goal
Application and Control
81
Helps successfully refine both Understanding and Measurement
Testable hypotheses
82
Theory
describes conceptual frameworks for understanding
83
Steps in a Scientific Investigation: (5)
1. Formulate testable hypothesis
2. Select research method and study design
3. Collect the data
4. Analyze the data and make inferences
5. Report findings
84
2 Advantages of the Scientific Approach:
1. Clarity and Precision
| 2. Relative Intolerance of Error
85
Scientist define measurable concepts and their proposed relationships exactly
Clarity and Precision
86
Appreciate human biases in reasoning and attempt to compensate for them
Relative Intolerance of Error
87
If you believe that increasing levels of anxiety are associated with drug abuse, what have you just formulated?
a hypothesis
88
Independent Variable
Variable manipulated by experimenters
89
Variable affected by manipulation
Dependent Variable
90
A researcher wants to see if a protein-enriched diet will enhance the maze-running performance of rats. One group of rats is fed a high-protein diet for the duration of the study; the other group continues to receive ordinary rat food. In this experiment, what term describes the rats’ maze-running performance?
Dependent variables
91
Control Group
Does not receive the primary experimental
| treatment or manipulation of the independent variable
92
Receives some kind of treatment or
| manipulation of the independent variable
Experimental group
93
What is one disadvantage of the experimental method?
the artificial situations in which experiments are often conducted
94
Which research method are you using if you interview a person in-depth and over a period of time so that you can understand that person to the greatest possible degree?
case study
95
Extraneous variables
are any variable besides the independent variable(s) that
| have an influence on values of dependent variable(s)
96
Are extraneous variables that are difficult or impossible to control for
Confounding variables
97
Random assignment
is an attempt to control for confounding
variables, giving each participant an equal likelihood of being in the control or
experimental group
98
2 Experiment Designs:
1. Between-subjects design
| 2. Within-subjects Design
99
participants are given different treatments simultaneously
Between-subjects designs
100
Within-subjects Design
Participants serve
as their own controls, by receiving all levels of the independent variable
manipulation
101
Primary advantage of experimental research?
it is able to
infer causal relationships between variables through the comparison
of control groups and experimental manipulations
102
Limitations of experimental research
1. Ecological validity and generalizability
| 2. ethical considerations prevent exploration of some important research avenues
103
Research Techniques/Methods:
1. Naturalistic Observation
2. Case Studies
3. Surveys
104
Naturalistic observation
Involves the careful observation
of behaviour without intervening
in the behaviour directly
105
Is a champion of
naturalistic observation of
chimpanzees in the Gombe
Stream National Park in Tanzania
Jane Goodall
106
are in-depth investigations of an individual or group of
| participants - often individuals who are exceptional in some way
Case studies
107
Surveys
Are questionnaires or interviews that help researchers
| gather information about specific aspects of participants’ behaviour
108
Are used to summarize and generalize data - these
| functions are separated into two types
Statistics
109
Used to organize and summarize data
Descriptive statistics
110
Inferential statistics
Used to interpret data and draw conclusions
111
The two major branches of statistics
Frequentist and Bayesian
112
Is a summary of the
| “centre” of a collection of data points
Central tendency
113
Mean
the arithmetic average
114
The most frequent data point(s) in
| the distribution
Mode
115
Median
the data point that falls exactly
halfway between the lowest and highest
data points collected
116
Refers to how much the scores in a data set vary from each other and from the mean
Variability
117
Standard deviation
is an index of the amount of variability in the
| data set - it is the average distance of a data point from the mean
118
is a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that
represents the pattern in which many characteristics are dispersed
in the population
Normal distribution
119
Percentile scores
indicate the percentage of people who score at
| or below a particular score
120
Correlation
exists when two variables are related to each other
121
Is a numerical index of the degree of
| relationship between two variables, ranging from -1 to +1
correlation coefficient
122
Correlation and prediction:
The strength of a correlation allows a researcher to predict the relative scores of one variable from known
scores of another
123
Correlation and causation
CORRELATION DOES NOT IMPLY CAUSATION
124
What does the standard deviation measure?
amount of variability in a data set
125
Are techniques used to interpret data and
| draw conclusions
Inferential statistics
126
Statistical significance
```
Is a (frequentist) claim about how likely it is
that the collected data was drawn by chance alone
```
127
Replication
is the repetition of a study to see whether the earlier results
are duplicated
128
Is a fundamental component of the scientific method,
which (ideally) includes active attempts to critique and improve research
methodology and falsify previous results
Critical thinking
129
Cognitive biases
fundamental attribution error, confirmation bias,
| hindsight bias
130
Samples
are a finite collection of the actual participants selected for
observation in an empirical study - a subset of the “population”
131
Are the much larger collection of individuals that researcher
want to generalize about - can be theoretically infinite
Populations
132
Sampling bias
Occurs when a sample is not randomly drawn from the
| population of interest
133
As interest rates increase, house sales decline. Which term best describes this pattern?
a negative correlation
134
Dr. Redding has found a correlation of +0.65 between snoring and weight. Which of the statement best reflects this statistical relationship?
a. )Overweight individuals tend to snore less than underweight individuals.
b. )There is no relationship between weight and snoring.
c. )Overweight individuals tend to snore more than underweight individuals.
d. )Individuals who go on a diet will most likely begin to snore.
C.) Overweight individuals tend to snore more than underweight individuals.
135
Placebo effects
occur when participants’ expectations lead them to
experience some change even though they receive empty, fake, or
ineffectual treatment
136
Is said to occur when the “illusory”
| perception and/or response is negative
Nocebo effect
137
Is any form of data such as interviews, questionnaires, or verbal
reports are given
Self-report data
138
The problem with these forms of data is that they rely on two dubious assumptions:
1. That participants will be honest with themselves and researchers
2. That participants have accurate insight into their own minds
139
the tendency to give socially approved answers to
| questions about oneself
Social desirability bias -
140
Occurs when a researcher’s expectations or
| preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results
Experimenter bias
141
Double-blind procedure
is a research strategy in which neither
participants not experimenters know which participants are in the
experimental or control groups
142
When is a sample considered to be “representative”?
when the sample is composed to reflect the population
143
In research, what does a placebo control for?
subjects’ expectations about treatment
144
Which term is defined as the tendency for survey subjects to provide answers that make them look good to others?
social desirability bias
145
Which term refers to the situation when researchers unintentionally influence the outcome of their studies?
experimenter bias
146
What is NOT a key issue pertaining to ethical dilemmas in psychological research?
a. )the use of deception
b. )the use of animals
c. )the use of psychoactive drugs
d. )causing harm to participants
c.)the use of psychoactive drugs
147
Ethical Considerations:
1. Distress (physical and psychological)
2. Informed consent
3. Truth and transparency
148
Three criteria have been suggested for consideration by Bateson (2011):
1. The extent of animal suffering
2. The importance of the research problem addressed
3. The likelihood of beneficial discoveries
149
cells are approximately
20μm in diameter
150
Two primary cell types:
Glial cells
| Neurons
151
The “support” cells
Glial cells
152
Ependymal cells
produce cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) to buffer the brain
153
Provide the basis for the blood-brain-barrier (BBB), a major
| chemical filter for the brain
Astroglia
154
Oligodendrocytes
provide myelin for neuronal insulation
155
Are the immune cells of the brain, or “clean-up crew”
Microglia
156
Neurons
Primary computational substrate of the brain
157
Parts of the neuron:
| 3
Dendrites (input)
• Somata (integration)
• Axons (output)
158
2 ways neurons communicate:
electrically via graded and action potentials,
| and chemically via synaptic transmission
159
Resting Membrane Potential
basis for all cellular life on
Earth is the compartmentalization of
processes, mediated by lipid
cellular membrane bilayers
160
Membranes are semi-permeable to
Water
161
The difference in ion concentration
and electrostatic charge across
membranes results in a
resting membrane
| potential of approximately -70mV
162
Ion channels are opened or closed to change the membrane potential either...
```
Decreasing it (HYPERPOLARIZE)
Increasing it (DEPOLARIZE)
```
163
Neurons communicate with other
neurons through chemical
messengers
neurotransmitters
164
Neurotransmitters are released at ____ by ____
axon terminals ; action potentials
165
Synaptic communication:
1. Synthesis of neurotransmitters
2. Storage and transportation
3. Neurotransmitter release
4. Binding to (auto)receptors
5. Reuptake
6. Deactivation & degradation
166
neurotransmitters that have the effect of stimulating or
| inhibiting the post-synaptic neuron
Agonists
167
Antagonists
neurotransmitters that have the effect of blocking the
| stimulation or inhibition of the post-synaptic neuron
168
Neurotransmitters that have the effect of reversing
| the normal agonist function on post-synaptic receptors
Inverse-agonists
169
Has a wide variety of functions in the nervous
system, including direct muscle control, arousal and memory.
Can be thought of as sharpening the cortical signal:noise ratio
Acetylcholine (ACh)
170
Dopamine
primary sources in the midbrain
• functions: reward (prediction-error), movement,
learning, attention
171
Norepinephrine
Primary sources in the brainstem
• functions: autonomic & central arousal, attention,
memory
172
primary sources in the brainstem
• functions: mood, homeostasis, arousal, sleep,
aggression
Serotonin
173
Glutamate
an amino acid and the primary
excitatory neurotransmitter in the central
nervous system
174
is an amino acid, synthesized from
glutamate, and acts as the primary inhibitory
neurotransmitter of the central nervous system
GABA
175
```
Are a class of peptides that bind to receptors in
neurons that are part of the circuitry for pain modulation
```
Endorphins
176
Endocannabinoids
are lipid signalling molecules that act as
retrograde neurotransmitters throughout the brain
functions: memory, homeostasis, hunger, general cognition
177
Nervous System is divided into :
Central nervous system
| Peripheral Nervous system
178
Central nervous system divided into:
Brain and Spinal cord
179
Peripheral nervous system divided into:
Somatic and Autonomic nervous system
180
Somatic Nervous System divided into:
Afferent and Efferent
181
Autonomic Nervous System divided into:
sympathetic and parasympathetic
182
Is composed of nerves
that control voluntary and involuntary movement
through skeletal muscle, and nerves that transduce
somatosensory information from the body
somatic nervous system
183
Afferent nerve fibers
are bundles of axons of
sensory neurons that carry peripheral information to
the spinal cord and then to the brain
184
carry motor commands from
the brain and spinal cord to the peripheral muscles
of the body
Efferent nerve fibers
185
autonomic nervous system
is made up of
nerves that connect to the heart, blood vessels,
smooth muscles, and glands
186
Is the branch that
| mobilizes the body’s resources
Sympathetic division
187
Parasympathetic divison
is the branch that
| conserves resources
188
responses occur
| along with heightened arousal or threat
Fight-or-flight (or freeze)
189
Enteric nervous system
Is comprised of approximately 500
million neurons with a highly
redundant organization
190
Divisions of the brain:
Hindbrain, Midbrain, Forebrain
191
Hindbrain is composed of the:
Medulla, Pons and Cerebellum
192
Is responsible for many
unconscious processes like those of
the autonomic system
medulla
193
pons
has nuclei whose functions
| include sleep and arousal
194
Contains most
neurons in the brain and is involved in
motor skill and coordinated movement
cerebellum
195
is located at the
top of the brainstem and is
involved in perception, reward
circuitry, and motor coordination
midbrain
196
runs
from the lower brainstem to the
midbrain, involved in arousal
reticular formation
197
Forebrain is divided into:
Thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, basal ganglia, cerebrum
198
```
Is a collection of
subcortical forebrain structures whose
functions predominantly include emotional
regulation, memory consolidation, and
motivation
```
limbic system
199
hippocampus
consolidates short-term
| into long-term memories
200
adds affective valence to
| perceptual and cognitive data
amygdala
201
receives
dopaminergic input from the midbrain and
is involved in reward and reinforcement
nucleus accumbens
202
Is the thin (2mm,
6-layered) convoluted outer layer of
the cerebrum (~20 billion neurons)
cerebral cortex
203
cerebral hemispheres
refer to
| the left and right cerebral halves
204
The cortical hemispheres are divided
| into:
frontal, temporal, parietal, and
| occipital lobes
205
Lobes are connected by:
```
corpus callosum (~200
million axons)
```
206
rely on the destruction of brain areas to infer function based on
behavioural deficits
Lesioning studies
207
A variety of methods are used to probe brain structure and function:
- Lesioning
- ESB/TMS
- CT
- fMRI
- PET
- EEG
208
brain lesion
is an area of damage – these allow
researchers to infer some of the function of that
area based on the consequent behavioural deficits
209
Broca's Area
left pre-frontal; useful for grammar and language
210
Left temporal cortex ; for semantics, (word meaning)
Wernicke's area
211
CT Scans
using x-rays , static image of the brain
212
EM Stimulation
overstimulating areas; to stimulate or inhibit
213
applies powerful magnetic field, getting high static image of the brain
fMRI
214
PET scan
applying radioactive isotope, gives a shape of the brain
215
electroencephalogram, scalp surface to record electrical activity in the cortex overtime
EEG
216
There are __ stages in the wiring of the developing brain
six
217
Three stages at play during brain development:
1. Neurogenesis
2. Synaptogenesis
3. Synapse rearrangement
218
Is the creation of new neurons
Neurogenesis
219
Synaptogenesis
Is the creation of new synapses by existing
| neurons, and is useful for the creation of new memories
220
Is the modification of existing neural
pathways so as to adapt to new behavioural requirements or to
compensate for brain damage incurred through trauma
Synapse rearrangement
221
Split-brain surgery
```
involves cutting the
corpus callosum (for epilepsy)
```
222
Left hemisphere
grammatical components
of language, symbolic & sequential
processing
223
Area for affective & tonality
components of language, most
components of music, visuospatial and
attention-driven processes
Right Hemisphere
224
Endocrine System
consists of glands that secrete hormones
| into the bloodstream that help control various functions of the body
225
Hormones
are chemical messengers released into the
| bloodstream from glands (similar to neurotransmitters)
226
Pituitary Gland
is often described as the “master gland”, and
| acts as the main interface between the brain and endocrine system
227
Oxytocin
bonding, social bonding
228
Vasopressin
fluid retention and regulation
229
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis
a body system involved in stress responses
230
Hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal
regulation of the reproductive system and immune system
231
Hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid
metabolic rate
232
Is a complex
molecule of four base pairs (A,C,G,T) that encodes
genetic information (3 billion base pairs in humans)
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
233
Genes
are strings of DNA that are transcribed into
RNA and translated into proteins, which influence
cellular structure/function (~20,000 human genes)
234
Genotype
refers to a specific genetic makeup
235
refers to the genetic expression type
Phenotype
236
Chromosomes
are strings of DNA/genes (23 pairs)
237
Epigenetics
is the study of heritable changes in gene expression
| that do not involve modifications to the DNA sequence
238
Heredity and Behaviour Research Methods: (5)
1. Family studies
2. Twin studies
3. Adoption studies
4. Genetic mapping
5. CRISPR- CAS9
239
Polygenic
traits are those that are influenced by more than one gene
240
adding up of the effects of two or more genes
Synergistic
241
Natural selection
is the non-random differential survival of
| pseudo-randomly varying replicators (genes)
242
Three requirements of Natural selection:
1. Genetic heritability
2. Genetic Variance
3. Selection pressure
243
is the process by which individuals
| compete for high quality mates – can counter other pressures
Sexual selection
244
Fitness
refers to reproductive success of an organism
245
refers to the survival of inherited traits that benefit
| an organism by overcoming a specific selection pressure
Adaptation
