Psychology 102 Midterm #2 Flashcards
(277 cards)
1
Q
What is Naïve Realism?
A
the belief that our sensory systems are infallible (in capable of making mistakes and errors) and that our perceptions are perfect representations of the world around us
2
Q
5 elements of sensation?
A
Vision Hearing Smell Taste Somatosensory
3
Q
What is Transduction?
A
process of converting an external energy or substance into electrical activity within neurons
4
Q
Transduction occurs via?
A
sensory receptors
5
Q
What is a Sensory receptor?
A
specialized cell responsible for converting external stimuli into neural activity for a specific sensory system
6
Q
What is Sensory Adaptation?
A
process in which activation is greatest when a stimulus is first detected
Response to the stimulus declines in strength over time
More heightened.
Ex. surprise party, the change in light will be extremely bright but perception of light will change due to adaption.
Habituation- responds less highly over a period of time.
Once you become more familiar with something the response to the stimulus declines.
Ex. 3 bowls of water temperatures.
7
Q
9 parts of vision?
A
Cornea Pupil Lens Ciliary muscles Aqueous humor Vitreous humor Fovea Blind spot Retina
8
Q
What is the Cornea?
A
transparent cover for the pupil, lens, and iris
Its shape bends incoming light to focus the image at the back of the eye
9
Q
What is the Pupil?
A
circular hole through which light enters the eye
Pupillary reflex is a muscle response that dilates or contracts the pupil
10
Q
When does pupil contract?
A
Contracts when there is bright light or something coming closes to face
11
Q
When does pupil dilate?
A
Dilates when in complex situations (ex. math questions) or when we see someone physically attractive.
12
Q
What is a lens?
A
part of the eye that changes curvature to keep images in focus
Consists of some of the most unusual cells in the body
13
Q
What is Presbyopia?
A
declining eyesight with age due to the lens becoming more rigid over time
14
Q
What is Ciliary Muscles?
A
changes the thickness of the lens
Ring of smooth muscle fibers
Connected to the lens via sensory ligaments
Allows the lens to focus on objects depending on their distance
15
Q
What is Nearsightedness?
A
inability to see far objects well but able to see close objects clearly
Results when images are focused in front of the rear of the eye, due to our cornea being too long
16
Q
Myopia is from?
A
Nearsightedness
17
Q
What is Farsightedness?
A
inability to see close objects well but able to see far objects clearly
Results when our cornea is too flat or our eyes are too short
18
Q
What is Aqueous Humor?
A
transparent, gelatinous fluid supporting the structure of the cornea and lens
Humor is Latin for moisture.
Located in front of eye.
19
Q
What is Vitreous Humor?
A
transparent, gelatinous fluid supporting the primary structure of the eye and retina
located inside eye
20
Q
What is a fovea?
A
central portion of the retina
Responsible for acuity (sharpness of vision)
Point of central focus.
21
Q
What is a blind spot?
A
point of exit of ganglion cell axons where the optic nerve connects to the retina
Contains no rods or cones
Creates some of the most remarkable visual illusions
22
Q
What is a retina?
A
membrane at the back of the eye responsible for converting light into neural activity
Contains photoreceptors (essential for us to see). Damage can cause colour blindess or blindness.
23
Q
What are Photoreceptors?
A
cells that respond to light (or lack there of)
Not equally distributed across the retina
24
Q
Two types of photoreceptors?
A
Rods
Cones
25
What are rods?
receptor cells in the retina that are sensitive to light
Long and narrow
Located around the peripheral of the retina
26
What do rods do?
Enable us to see basic shapes and forms
Dark adaption
Contains photopigments called rhodopsin
Approx. 125 million/retina
Ex. waiting for eyes to adjust to a room after tanning
27
How long can rods take to adjust?
Adjusting can take approximately 30 minutes.
28
What is dark adaption?
time in dark before rods regain maximum light sensitivity
29
What can insufficient rods lead to?
blindness.
30
What are cones?
receptor cells in the retina that are sensitive to detail
Cone-shaped
Located in the center of the retina
31
What do cones do?
Enable us to see colour
Less sensitive to light
Contains photopigments called iodopsin
Approx. 6.4 million/retina (less than rods)
32
Damage to iodopsin can cause?
colour blindness.
33
What is colour blindness?
inability to see some or all colours
Most often due to absence or reduced cones due to genetic abnormalities
Can also result due to brain injury
Males > Females
Very rare
34
What is blindness?
dramatic reduction or inability to see
Vision ≤ 20/200 on Snellen eye chart
35
What can blindness result from?
Can be the result of cataracts, clouding of the lens, or glaucoma
To compensate, they often rely on other senses (e.g., touch and hearing)
Can use echolocation to help compensate for vision. (uses echoes/sounds in the area to see)
36
Compare red and white canes?
Red on cane is partial sight
White cane means they cannot see at all.
37
What is Visual Agnosia?
a condition in which a person can see but cannot recognize or interpret visual information
Caused by a disorder in the parietal lobes
38
What is hearing?
Sound = vibration (waves)
2nd most used sense
Sound waves can travel through gases, liquids, and solids
We hear them best, though, when they travel through air
39
3 elements of sound?
Frequency
Amplitude
Timbre
40
What is Frequency (pitch)?
Definition = number of cycles a sound wave completes in a given time
Measured in hertz (Hz)
Humans hear sounds between 3—20,000 Hz
41
What is Amplitude?
Definition = strength (or height) of a sound wave
Measured in decibels (dB)
42
At what dB do we start to get hearing damage?
Over 100dB is when we can start to get hearing damage if exposed for 1 minute.
At 125dB is when we start to feel pain.
43
What is timbre?
complexity or quality of sound that makes musical
instruments, human voices, or other sounds unique
Allows the ear to distinguish sounds with the same pitch and loudness
Determined by the harmonic content of a sound and the dynamic characteristics of the sound (e.g., vibrato)
44
10 structures of ear?
They are a chain of command, sends signals from one structure to the next.
```
Pinna
Tympanic Membrane
Ossicles
Oval Window
Cochlea
Basilar Membrane
Cochlear Duct
Organ of Corti
Hair Cells
Cilia
```
45
What is the pinna?
structure of the ear that amplifies sound and funnels it down the auditory canal to the tympanic membrane
Helps with localization
46
What is the Tympanic Membrane?
membrane which vibrates according to the frequency of the sound
Commonly known as the “eardrum”
47
What is the ossicles?
structure consisting of three bones that transmit vibrations from the tympanic membrane to the oval window
48
What is the 3 bones of the ossicles?
Bones (smallest in the human body):
Malleus (Hammer)
Incus (Anvil)
Stapes (Stirrup)
49
What is the oval window?
membrane that receives vibrations from the ossicles and sends it to the cochlea
Connects middle and inner ear
inner ear from here on.
50
What is the cochlea?
spiral-shaped and filled with fluid
51
The cochlea contains?
Basilar membrane
Cochlear duct
Organ of corti
52
What is the Basilar Membrane?
membrane below the organ of Corti that assists in translating vibrations into neural activity via action potentials
53
What is the cochlear duct?
endolymph filled cavity inside the cochlea
Sound vibrations create waves in this fluid trigger movement in the hair cells and cilia
54
What is the organ of corti?
tissue containing the hair cells (and cilia) necessary for hearing
Translates the waves in the endolymph into neural activity via action potentials
55
What are hair cells?
Attached to the top of each cell in the basilar membrane
When the basilar membrane vibrates, it causes movement in the hair cells
Each hair cell has many fine filaments called cilia
56
What is cilia?
short, microscopic, hair-like structure extending from hair cells
57
What does cilia movement do?
Movement of the cilia open ion channels causing the release of neurotransmitters to send signals to the brain
58
Latin for smell?
Olfactory
59
Human can detect how many odours?
Humans are only capable of detecting between 2000-4000 different odours
60
Decreased sense of smell may be an early sign of?
Alzheimer’s or Parkinson’s disease
61
Latin for taste?
“Gustation”
62
Five basic tastes?
sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and umami (savoury)
Taste preferences are primarily culturally determined
63
What are taste buds called?
papillae
taste contains different papillae (taste buds) with different distributions of receptors
64
What is Somatosensory?
our sense of touch, temperature, and pain
Sense of balance
65
Somatosensory is distinguished via?
Skin senses
Internal senses
Vestibular senses
66
What are skin senses?
Nerve endings embedded into the skin send sensory information to the brain
67
What are free nerve endings?
associated with pain and temperature
68
What are specialized nerve endings?
associated with touch and pressure
69
What are internal senses?
Receptors in the bones, joints, and muscles send sensory information to the brain
Tells you where your body parts are with respect to each other
This dramatically decreases when you drink alcohol.
70
What are vestibular senses?
Our sense of equilibrium
Enables us to sense and maintain our balance as we move about
BALANCE
71
Vestibular senses consist of?
Consists of two vestibular sacs and three semicircular canals in the inner ear
72
What is the purpose of the fluid in the sacs?
Our ears aid in balance
We have fluid in the sacs and when we go on roller coasters it moves around and that causes nausea
As we age we get more nauseous in these situations due to the fluid
Fluid in sacs move to warn you that you are falling.
73
What is threshold?
point at which we perceived it as painful
74
What is the gate control theory?
The idea that pain is blocked (or gated) from consciousness by neural mechanisms (ex. distraction- watch favorite movie or buying/eating food.)
Emotional component as well
75
What is perceptions?
the brain’s interpretation of raw sensory inputs
When light hits objects, part of it is absorbed while the rest is reflected off the object
Our perception of an object’s brightness is influenced by how much light is reflected
76
Psychophysics of Perception?
the study of how we perceive sensory stimuli based on their physical characteristics
77
Ways to measure perception?
Absolute threshold
Just noticeable difference (JND)
Signal detection theory
78
What is absolute threshold?
= lowest level of a stimulus needed for the nervous system to detect a change 50% of the time
Ex. frequency hearing test (noticing the change).
Ex. on a dark night w can detect a lit candle from 50km away, past that we cannot see.
79
What is Just Noticeable Difference (JND)?
smallest change in intensity of a stimulus that we can detect
Webster’s Law dictates that there is a constant proportional relationship between JND and the original stimulus intensity
80
What is Signal Detection Theory?
theory regarding how stimuli are detected under different conditions
81
2 components of Signal Detection Theory?
Signal The stimulus you are trying to perceive (ex. squinting to see something)
Noise Anything that could distract you from the stimulus
82
Stages of Perception?
Sensation
Perceptual organization
Identification and recognition
83
What is sensation?
External stimuli trigger action potentials of sensory neurons that travel to the brain
84
What is Perceptual organization?
The process of synthesizing (i.e., grouping) sensory features into internal representations of an external stimulus
85
What is Identification and recognition?
The process of creating perception by identifying and assigning meaning to perceived sensations
86
6 Laws of Perceptual Grouping?
```
Law of proximity
Law of similarity
Law of continuity
Law of closure
Law of symmetry
Law of figure-ground
```
87
What is Law of Proximity?
objects physically close to each other tend to be perceived as unified wholes
88
What is Law of Similarity?
we perceive similar objects as composing a whole more than dissimilar objects
This can lead to issue such as prejudice. Racism.
89
What is Law of Continuity?
we perceive objects as wholes, even if other objects block part of them
90
What is Law of Closure?
when partial visual information is present, our brains fill in what is missing
91
What is Law of Symmetry?
we perceive objects that are symmetrically arranged as wholes more often than those that are not
92
What is Law of Figure-Ground?
perceptually, we make an instantaneous decision to focus on what we believe to be the central figure, and largely ignore what we believe to be the background
Ex. Professor is main figure and the screens are the foreground.
93
What is the types of Perceptual Organization?
Bottom-up processing
| Top-down processing
94
What is Bottom-up processing?
processing in which a whole is constructed from its parts (ex. you see something in the street and you think it’s an animal so you get closer and its just a plastic bag or Ellen's epic or fail)
95
What is Top-down processing ?
conceptually driven processing influenced by beliefs and expectations (ex. based on surrounding environment like letters, numbers)
96
What is a Perceptual Illusion?
ability to attend to many sense modalities simultaneously (Ex. picture that shows tree and animals.)
97
What is Consciousness?
a subjective experience of the world, the physical body, and cognitive processes
We are product of our experiences.
As we experience new events our consciousness is molded.
98
4 Theories for why we sleep?
Storing memories
Remembering emotional information
Strengthening our immune system
Conserving energy and restoring our strength
99
What is Circadian Rhythm?
cyclical changes that occur on a roughly 24-hour basis in many biological processes
100
What is Circadian Rhythm responsible for?
Responsible for making us feel drowsy at different times of the day and night
101
Circadian Rhythm is controlled by?
Controlled by our hypothalamus
102
Circadian Rhythm release what hormone?
At night, this structure releases a hormone called melatonin that triggers feelings of tiredness
103
What can interrupt the Circadian Rhythm?
Although this rhythm stays relatively consistent, it can be interrupted by:
Travel
Shift work
These interruptions can result in higher frequency of injuries, fatal accidents, and health problems
104
5 Stages of sleep?
Awake
Stage 1-3
REM
105
What is the stage awake?
Beta (alert) and alpha (relaxed) waves
Low amplitude
High frequency
106
What is the Sleep: Stage 1?
Light sleep
Theta brain waves
Moderate amplitude
Low frequency
May include:
Hypnagogic imagery
Twitching of limbs
Lasts 5-10 minutes
107
What happens during stage 1?
Brain powers down at least 50% during this time.
If woken up during this stage, often very confused or disoriented.
108
What is Hypnagogic imagery?
scrambled, bizarre, and dream like images that can quickly move in and out of consciousness.
109
What is stage 2?
Deeper light sleep
Brain waves slow down and include:
Sleep spindles
K-complexes
110
What happens during stage 2?
Heart rate and body temperature decrease
Muscles relax
Occupies 65% of sleep
111
What are Sleep spindles?
rapid bursts of brain activity, develop at approx. 6 weeks of age.
Could be responsible to twitching.
As you age, you produce less of these.
Older peoples sleep quality is not as good without these.
112
What are K-complexes?
large waves that react to external stimuli.
Ex. noise in room while someone sleeping but these make us stay asleep
Does not occur until 5 months of age
113
What is Sleep: Stages 3 and 4?
Deep sleep
Delta brain waves
High amplitude
Low frequency
Necessary stages to feel rested
114
What is Sleep: REM?
Rapid Eye Movement
stage of sleep during which the brain is most active and includes vivid dreaming
115
What happens in REM?
Occurs periodically after stages 1-4
Associated with dream-like mental activity
Heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing increases
Lasts approx. 10 minutes
Occupies 20-25% of sleep
This is when we are having our most vivid dream.
116
Sleep deprivation is linked to?
Obesity
Heart disease
Mental illnesses
117
Sleep deprivation leads to?
Increased irritability
Lack of concentration
Impairs cognitive function
REM rebound (the intensity of REM dramatically increases– gives more REM to compensate for loss of sleep.)
118
What is REM Rebound?
the amount and intensity of REM increases
When sleep resumes, we often experience:
Increase in dream intensity
Higher frequency of nightmares
119
What should you avoid for a better quality of sleep?
```
Stimulants (caffeine's, energy drinks, pop)
Alcohol
Large meals
Unnecessary light
Late night exercise
Napping
```
120
What are dreams?
A virtually universal experience
121
What is blind dreaming?
Individuals blinded before the age of 4 do not experience visual imagery in dreams
Individuals blinded after the age of 7 do experience visual imagery in dreams
122
What ages are critical to have good development of visual imagery?
This suggests that ages 4 to 6 is a critical period for the development of visual imagery in dreams
123
What is lucid dreaming?
experience of becoming aware that one is dreaming
REM sleep + wakefulness
It is likely that we have all experienced at least one lucid dream
And, approx. 1/5 reportedly lucid dream on a monthly basis
124
5 reasons why we dream?
Processing emotional memories
Integrating new experiences with established memories
Learning new strategies and ways of doing things
Stimulating threatening events so we can better cope
Recognizing and consolidating memories
125
3 theories for dreams?
Psychoanalytic theories
Biological theories
Cognitive theories
126
What are Psychoanalytic Theories?
Freud believed a dream expressed desires, wishes, and unfilled needs that exist in the unconsciousness
Manifest content
Latent content
127
What is manifest content?
covert story line with characters and a setting
128
What is latent content?
symbolic dreams hidden with deeper meaning
129
What did Jung believe about Psychoanalytic Theories?
Jung believed that dreams were nature’s way of allowing access to the unconscious
Collective conscious
130
What is Collective conscious?
primitive ideas and images inherited from one’s ancestors (ex. fear of the dark)
131
What are Biological Theories?
Watson believed that dreams and consciousness may have a biological basis with no hidden content or meaning
Activation-Synthesis Theory
132
What is the Activation-Synthesis Theory?
dreams reflect brain activation in sleep
133
What are cognitive theories?
Dreams reflect the same kind of thinking people engage in when they are awake
Dream express current (rather than past) wishes, desires, and issues
Neurocognitive Theory
134
What is Neurocognitive Theory?
dreams are meaningful products of our cognitive capacities
Dream content is relatively stable over time
Complex dreams --> cognitive achievements
135
What did scientists Agee on about dreams?
Acetylcholine activates REM sleep
| The forebrain plays an important role in dreams
136
The 7 sleep disorders are?
```
Insomnia
Narcolepsy
Sleep apnea
Night terrors
Sleep paralysis
Sleepwalking
Sleeping beauty syndrome
```
137
What is insomnia?
difficulty falling and staying asleep
Characterized by at least one of the following:
Trouble falling asleep
Waking up too early
Waking up during the night and having trouble falling back asleep
The most common sleep disorder
138
How to treat insomnia?
Although sleeping pills can be effective in treating insomnia, researchers have discovered that brief psychotherapy is more effective
In fact, using sleeping aids (e.g., Ambien) can cause odd or even dangerous behaviours
They can also create dependency and make it more difficult to sleep once people stop taking them
139
What is narcolepsy?
rapid and often unexpected onset of sleep
This urge to sleep can strike at any moment
Instant onset of REM sleep
May be accompanied by:
Vivid hypnagogic hallucinations
Cataplexy
140
What is Cataplexy?
complete loss of muscle tone
When it occurs, people collapse as their muscles become limp
Occurs in ordinary individuals during REM sleep
Those with narcolepsy, however, experience this during the day and remain alert the whole time
141
What can narcolepsy bee caused by?
Genetic factors
Chemical imbalance
Brain injury
Each resulting in Orexin deficiency
142
What is Orexin?
hormone that regulates arousal, wakefulness, and appetite
143
What is sleep apnea?
blockage of the airway during sleep, resulting in daytime fatigue
This blockage results in:
Loud snoring and gasps
Stop breathing 20 + seconds
Can occur hundreds of times a night, leading to poor quality of sleep
144
6 Consequences of Sleep Apnea?
```
Night sweats
Weight gain
Fatigue
Hearing loss
Irregular heartbeat
Dementia
```
145
What are night terrors?
sudden waking episodes characterized by screaming, perspiring, and confusion followed by a return to a deep sleep
Often more disturbing to onlookers than to sleepers
Only last a few minutes
146
5 Symptoms of Night Terrors?
```
Screaming
Crying
Perspiring
Confusion
Wide-eyed
```
147
What is sleep paralysis?
state of being unable to move just before falling asleep or right before waking up
Up to 50% of college students have had at least one episode
Caused by a disruption in the sleep cycle
Often associated with anxiety
148
What is sleep walking?
walking while fully asleep
Occurs more often in childhood and when sleep deprived
Rarely remember their actions after awakening
Despite urban myths, it is perfectly safe to wake someone who is sleepwalking
149
What is Sleeping Beauty Syndrome?
persistent episodic hypersomnia
Each episode can last days, weeks, or even months
Often experience confusion, disorientation, complete lack of energy, and lack of emotions
No evidence of behavioural or physical dysfunction between episodes
May continue for 10 years or more
150
The 5 Altered Consciousness?
```
Hallucinations
Out-of-body experiences
Near-death experiences
Mystical experiences
Hypnosis
```
151
What are hallucinations?
realistic perceptual experiences in the absence of a stimulus
Occurs only while awake
Ranges from seeing ghost-like apparitions to scenes of splendid beauty
Experienced by approx. 10-14% of the general population
152
Triggers off hallucinations?
oxygen deprivation, epilepsy, fevers, migraines, dementia, and stress
153
What are Out-of-Body Experiences?
sense of our consciousness leaving our body
Described as floating above your body, calmly observing themselves from above
Experienced by approx. 10% of the general population
154
Triggers for Out-of-Body Experiences?
medication, psychedelic drugs, migraines, seizures, and stress
155
What are Near-Death Experiences?
out-of-body experience reported by people who have nearly died or thought they were going to die
Differs across people and cultures
25% of individuals who experience a near-death experience also experience an out-of-body experience
156
Triggers off near-death experiences?
electrical stimulation in the of the brain’s frontal lobe, oxygen deprivation, psychedelic drugs, and anesthetic
157
What are mystical experiences?
feelings of unity or oneness with the world, often with strong spiritual overtones
Last only for a few moments
Can leave lasting, and even lifelong, impressions
Differ across individuals and religions
Rare and unpredictable
158
Features of mystical experiences?
Sense of unity or oneness with the world
Transcendence of time and space
Feelings of wonder and awe
159
What is hypnosis?
set of techniques that provide people with suggestions for alterations in their perceptions, thoughts, feelings, and behaviours
160
What is hypnosis' induction method?
Suggestions for relaxation, calmness, and well-being
Includes instructions to imagine or think about pleasant experiences
161
Suggestibility of hypnosis?
```
Low = 15-20% of individuals
Moderate = 60-70% of individuals
High = 15-20% of individuals
```
162
Clinical applications of hypnosis?
Enhances effectiveness of psychotherapies
Useful for treating pain, medical conditions, and habit disorders
Can boost effectiveness of therapies for anxiety, obesity, and other conditions
163
Myths and Misconceptions of hypnosis?
Hypnosis produces a trance state in which “amazing” things can happen
Hypnotic phenomena are unique
Hypnosis is a sleeplike state
Hypnotized individuals are unaware of their surroundings
Hypnotized individuals forget what happened during hypnosis
Hypnosis enhances memory
164
What are Psychoactive Drugs?
substance that contains chemicals similar to those found naturally in our brains that alter consciousness by changing chemical processes in neurons
Can be used to treat physical and mental illness
165
5 Elements of Drug Use?
```
Abuse
Tolerance
Withdrawal
Substance dependence
Addiction
```
166
What is drug abuse?
recurrent problems associated with use of the drug
Leads to problems with family, friends, work, responsibilities, and the law
167
What is tolerance?
reduction in the effect of a drug as a result of repeated use, requiring users to consume greater quantities to achieve the same effect
Key feature of substance dependence
168
What is withdrawal?
unpleasant effects of reducing or stopping consumption of a drug that users had consumed habitually
169
What is substance dependence?
more serious pattern of use, leading to clinically significant impairment, distress, or both
170
2 types of substance dependence?
Physical dependence
| Psychological dependence
171
What is physical dependence?
dependence on a drug that occurs when people continue to take it to avoid withdrawal symptoms
172
What is psychological dependence?
dependence on a drug that occurs when continued use of the drug is motivated by intense cravings
173
What is addiction?
a condition that results when an individual ingests a substance that can be pleasurable but continuation of which becomes compulsive and interferes with ordinary responsibilities and concerns
174
3 types off psychoactive drugs?
Depressants
Stimulants
Psychedelics
175
What are depressants?
drugs that depress the effects of the central nervous system
Used to reduce tension and anxiety
176
2 types of depressants?
Alcohol
| Sedative-hypnotics
177
What is alcohol?
The most widely used and abused drug
Plays a critical role in social, religious, and medical contexts
In general, it depresses areas of the brain that regulate emotion and behaviour
178
Legal cutoff for alcohol in Canada?
In most of Canada, a blood alcohol content (BAC) of .08 is the cutoff for legal intoxication while operating a vehicle
179
BAC levels?
```
.20-.30 = strong sedation
.40-.50 = may lead to unconsciousness
.50-.60 = may be fatal
```
180
What are sedative-hypnotics?
Depressant drugs
Slows down bodily functions
Considered extremely
dangerous in high doses as they can produce unconsciousness, coma, and even death
181
Types of Sedative-Hypnotics?
Barbiturates
Non-barbiturates
Benzodiazepines
182
What are barbiturates?
Most common barbiturate Seconal
Originally used in hypnosis to help client recover repressed memories
Also, used to reduce tension and anxiety by slowing down respiration and heart rate
Produces a state of intoxication similar to alcohol
Highly addictive
Most overdoses are fatal
183
What are Non-Barbiturates?
Most common non-barbiturate Quaalude
Originally marketed as a non-addictive sleeping aid
Also, used to reduce tension and anxiety by slowing down respiration and heart rate
Highly addictive
Overdoses can lead to seizures, coma, or death
184
What is Benzodiazepine?
Most common benzodiazepine Valium
Used to treat seizures, anxiety-related disorders, panic disorder, or sleep disorders
Can also be used as a muscle relaxant or anesthetic
Not as addictive as barbiturates and non-barbiturates
Can increase risk of dementia
185
What are stimulants?
drug that increases activity in the central nervous system, including heart rate, respiration, and blood pressure
186
Stimulants include 3 drugs?
Nicotine
Cocaine
Crystal Meth
187
What is nicotine?
Leading cause of preventable disease and death in Canada
Includes smoking, chewing, dipping, licking, and even drinking
Often used to suppress anxiety and appetite
Potent and addictive
Reaches the brain in a mere 7 seconds when inhaled
188
What is cocaine?
The most powerful natural stimulant
Derived from the leaves of the coca plant
Highly addictive
Triggers a release of dopamine and serotonin
High can last from 15 to 60 minutes
189
In 1800's cocaine was used in?
In the late 1800s, doctors claimed that cocaine was a cure-all and prescribed it for a wide range of illnesses
Was used as an ingredient in:
Medicines
Wines
Other alcohol
190
Positive symptoms of cocaine?
```
Euphoria
Increased confidence
Increased energy
Increased tolerance
of pain *
Diminished fatigue
```
191
Negative symptoms of cocaine?
```
Loss of appetite
Itching
Tachycardia
Hallucinations
Paranoid delusions
Insomnia *
Violent behaviour
Anxiety
```
192
Withdrawal symptoms of cocaine?
```
Aggressiveness
Agitation
Exhaustion
Long periods of sleep
Depression
```
193
Overdose symptoms of cocaine?
```
Nausea or vomiting
Overheating
Difficulty breathing
Cardiac arrest
Seizures or convulsions
Stroke
Coma
Death
```
194
What is crystal meth?
Methamphetamine
White crystalline drug
Used by 2% of youths in Canada
Highly addictive
Triggers a release of norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin
High can last from 6 to 12 hours
195
Positive symptoms of crystal meth?
Euphoria
| Diminished fatigue
196
Negative symptoms of crystal meth?
```
Loss of appetite
Respiratory problems
Tachycardia
Hallucinations
Paranoid delusions
Violent behaviour
Mood disturbances
Rotting teeth and gums *
Anxiety
Stroke
```
197
With-drawl symptoms of crystal meth?
```
Exhaustion
Depression
Mental confusion
Insomnia
Extreme hunger
Anxiety
```
198
Overdose symptoms of crystal meth?
```
Overheating
Difficulty breathing
Cardiac arrest
Seizures or convulsions
Stroke
Coma
Death
```
199
What are Psychedelics?
drugs that produce dramatic alterations in perception, mood, and thought
200
Types of Psychedelics?
Ecstasy (MDMA or Molly)
Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)
Psilocybin mushrooms (Shrooms)
Marijuana (Weed)
201
What is ecstasy?
Contains a wide mixture of substances
Surfaced as a psychotherapy medication to lower client inhibitions
Increases the activity of neurotransmitter serotonin
Psychological (not physical) dependence
High can last of 4 to 6 hours
202
Positive symptoms of ecstasy?
```
Euphoria
Increased confidence, emotional empathy, and energy
Increased tolerance to pain
Decreased fatigue
Heightened sense of touch
```
203
Negative symptoms of ecstasy?
```
Anxiety
Blurred vision
Loss of appetite
Dehydration
Memory problems
Elevated blood pressure, heart rate, and respiratory
```
204
With-drawl symptoms of ecstasy?
```
Mood swings
Restlessness
Excessive thirst
Muscle cramping
Depression
Insomnia
```
205
Overdose symptoms of ecstasy?
```
Nausea or vomiting
Overheating
Seizures or convulsions
Coma
Death
```
206
What is LSD?
Produces altered perception of visual and auditory stimuli
Noticeable changes in audio, visual, and tactile senses
Increases the activity of neurotransmitter serotonin
Psychological (not physical) dependence
High can last from 6 to 14 hours
207
Positive symptoms of LSD?
Euphoria
208
Negative symptoms of LSD?
```
Loss of appetite
Blurred vision
Tingling fingers or toes
Anxiety
Depression
Disorientation
Paranoid
Hallucinations
```
209
With-drawl symptoms of LSD?
None
210
Overdose symptoms of LSD?
```
Dilated pupils
Nausea or vomiting
Tachycardia
Fever
Seizures or convulsions
Coma
Death
```
211
What are shrooms?
Hallucinogenic mushrooms that alter a person’s state of mind and consciousness
Noticeable changes in audio, visual, and tactile senses
Psychological (not physical) dependence
High can last for 3 to 8 hours
212
Positive symptoms of shrooms?
Euphoria *
| Sense of well being
213
Negative symptoms of shrooms?
```
Mood swings
Increased heart rate
Panic attacks
Depression
Delusions
Hallucinations
Suicidal tendencies
```
214
With-drawl symptoms of shrooms?
None
215
Overdose symptoms of shrooms?
```
Dilated pupils
Loss of appetite
Nausea or vomiting
Difficulty breathing
Paranoia
Seizures or convulsions
Coma
Death
```
216
What is Marijuana?
Most common recreational drug in Canada
Derived from the cannabis plant
Contains an active ingredient called THC
Psychological (not physical) dependence
High can last for 3 to 4 hours
217
Positive symptoms of Marijuana?
Relaxation
| Pain-relief
218
Negative symptoms of Marijuana?
```
Increased appetite
Slow reaction time
Dizziness
Short-term memory problems
Tachycardia
Decreased libido and fertility
Suicidal thoughts
```
219
With-drawl symptoms of Marijuana?
None
220
Overdose symptoms of Marijuana?
```
Anxiety
Depression
Hallucinations
Delusions
Paranoia
Seizures or convulsions
```
221
What is learning?
change in an organism’s behaviour or thought as a result of experience
222
3 types of conditioning?
Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning
Observational learning
223
What is Habituation?
process of responding less strongly over time to repeated stimuli
The simplest and earliest form of learning
224
What is Sensitization?
process of responding more strongly over time to repeated stimuli
225
What is Classical Conditioning?
form of learning in which animals come to respond to a previously neutral stimulus that had been paired with another stimulus that elicits an automatic response
226
Elements of classical conditioning?
```
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
Unconditioned response (UCR)
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Conditioned response (CR)
```
227
What is Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)?
stimulus that elicits an automatic response without prior conditioning
228
What is Unconditioned response (UCR)?
automatic response to a non-neutral stimulus that does not need to be learned
229
What is Conditioned stimulus (CS)?
initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a response due to association with an unconditioned stimulus
230
What is Conditioned response (CR)?
response previously associated with a non-neutral stimulus that is elicited by a neutral stimulus through conditioning
231
Key components of classical conditioning?
Strength
Timing
Frequency
Predictability
232
What is strong strength? (classical conditioning)
when an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., steak) is likely to elicit the unconditioned response (e.g., salivation)
233
What is weak strength? (classical conditioning)
when an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., steak) is unlikely to elicit the unconditioned response (e.g., salivation)
234
What is timing? (classical conditioning)
An unconditioned stimulus (e.g., steak) must be paired with a conditioned stimulus (e.g., metronome) close enough in time for the two to be associated for conditioning to occur
235
What is frequency? (classical conditioning)
Occasional pairings of a neutral stimulus (e.g., metronome) with an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., steak) do not typically result in conditioning
236
What is predictability? (classical conditioning)
If the unconditioned stimulus (e.g., steak) can be readily predicted by the conditioned stimulus (e.g., metronome), the conditioning can be achieved rapidly
237
Phases of classical conditioning?
Acquisition
Extinction
Spontaneous recovery
238
What is acquisition? (classical conditioning)
learning phase during which a conditioned response is established
The closer in time the pairing of the unconditioned stimulus and conditioned stimulus, the faster learning occurs
239
What is extinction? (classical conditioning)
gradual reduction and eventual elimination of the conditioned response after the condition stimulus is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus
240
What is spontaneous recovery? (classical conditioning)
sudden re-emergence of an extinct conditioned response after a delay following an extinction procedure
Maybe reappear hours or days later
241
The two phenomenas of classical conditioning?
Stimulus generalization
| Stimulus discrimination
242
What is Stimulus generalization?
process by which conditioned stimuli similar (but not identical) to the original conditioned stimulus elicit a conditioned response
243
What is Stimulus discrimination?
process by which organisms display a less pronounced conditioned response to stimuli that differ from the original conditioned stimulus
244
What is latent inhibition?
difficulty in establishing classical conditioning to a conditioned stimulus we have repeatedly experienced alone, that is, without the unconditioned stimulus
245
What is operant conditioning?
learning controlled by the consequences of the organism’s behaviour
Typically shaped by rewards
Behaviour must be elicited voluntarily
246
Components of operant conditioning?
Reinforcement
| Punishment
247
What are reinforcements?
outcome or consequence of a behaviour that strengthens the probability of the behaviour
248
What are punishments?
outcome or consequence of a behaviour that weakens the probability of the behaviour
249
What is the law of effect?
principle asserting that if a stimulus followed by a behaviour results in a reward, the stimulus is more likely to give rise to the behaviour in the future
250
Disadvantages of punishment?
Emphasizes what not to do, instead of what to do
Often creates anxiety
May encourage subversive behaviour
May provide a model of aggressive behaviour
251
What is insight learning?
grasping the underlying nature of a problem
252
What is skinner box?
small animal chamber constructed to allow sustained periods of conditioning to be administered and behaviours to be recorded and supervised
253
What is reinforcement?
patterns of reinforcing a behaviour
254
Types of reinforcement?
Continuous
| Partial
255
What is continuous reinforcement?
reinforcing a behaviour every time it occurs
256
What is partial reinforcement?
reinforcing a behaviour intermittently
257
What is strength? (Operant conditioning)
the greater the reward, the harder, longer, and faster the organism will work to complete a task
258
What is timing? (Operant conditioning)
he shorter the interval between rewards, the greater the likelihood the behaviour will be learned
259
What is reinforcement schedules?
Fixed ratio
Fixed interval
Variable ratio
Variable interval
260
What is a fix ratio?
pattern in which we provide reinforcement following a regular number of responses
ex. The rat is rewarded food after every 10 presses on the lever
261
What is a fixed interval?
pattern in which we provide reinforcement for the first response following a specified time interval
ex. The rat is rewarded food every 1 hour
262
What is a variable ratio?
pattern in which we provide reinforcement after a variable number of responses
ex. The rat is rewarded food after 6, 12, 1, and 21 presses on the lever
263
What is the variable interval?
pattern in which we provide reinforcement for the first response following a variable time interval
ex. The rat is rewarded food every 20 mins, 45 mins, 2 hours, and 15 minutes
264
Operant conditioning Differs from Classical Conditioning in two ways?
The behaviour is voluntary rather than reflexive
A consequence follows rather than occurring simultaneously with the behaviour
265
Phases of operant conditioning?
Acquisition
Extinction
Spontaneous recovery
266
What is acquisition? (operant conditioning)
learning phase during which an operant response is established
267
What is extinction? (operant conditioning)
= gradual reduction and eventual elimination of the operant response when reinforcement of that response is no longer present
268
What is spontaneous recovery? (operant conditioning)
sudden re-emergence of an extinguished operant response after a delay following an extinction procedure
May reappear hours or days later
269
Operant conditioning pheenomeenas?
Stimulus generalization
| Stimulus discrimination
270
What is Stimulus generalization? (operant conditioning)
process by which operant stimuli similar (but not identical) to the original operant stimulus elicits an operant response
271
What is Stimulus discrimination? (operant conditioning)
process by which organisms display a less pronounced operant response to stimuli that differ from the original operant stimulus
272
What is observable learning?
learning by watching others
Allows us to learn without reinforcement
Occurs continuously, some argue automatically
273
What is the bobo doll experiment?
Children (ages 3 to 5)
Two conditions:
Children observed adults playing quietly and ignoring the Bobo doll
Children observed adults punching, kicking, and yelling at the Bobo doll
Following, children were left alone in the room with the Bobo doll
Children previously exposed to the aggressive model demonstrated significantly more aggression towards the Bobo doll than children exposed to the non-aggressive model
Confirming that children can learn aggression through observational learning
274
What is the key components of observable learning?
Type of model
Personality
Situation
275
What is Type of model?
models similar to the learner and that the learner aspires to will have a greater impact on the learner’s behaviour
276
What is Personality?
learners that lack critical thinking and independence engage in observational learning more often
277
What is Situation?
the similarity and familiarity of the situation can differentially influence observational learning
