psychology 2 1-10-15 - Sheet1 Flashcards
(165 cards)
1
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Behavioral Perspective
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Emerged from the pioneering work of Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, and B. F. Skinner. Emphasizes observable behavior that can be objectively measured.
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Humanistic Perspective
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Emerged from the pioneering work of Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow. Emphasizes the importance of self-esteem, free will, and choice in human behavior.
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Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Perspective
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Emerged from the pioneering work of Sigmund Freud. Emphasizes the role of unconscious conflicts in determining behavior and personality.
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Cognitive Perspective
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Influenced by the computer revolution, the cognitive perspective compares the mind to a computer that encodes, processes, and stores information. Cognitive psychologists emphasize thinking, perceiving, and information processing.
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Biological Perspective
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Emphasizes genetics, the roles of various parts of the brain, and the structure and function of individual nerve cells.
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Evolutionary Perspective
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Influenced by the seminal writings of Charles Darwin. Emphasizes the role played by natural selection and adaptation in the evolution of behavior and mental processes.
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Experimental Method
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A carefully controlled scientific procedure involving the manipulation of variables to determine cause and effect.The experimental method enables researchers to determine cause-and-effect relationships.
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Independent Variable
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The factor that is manipulated or controlled by the experimenter.
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Dependent Variable
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The factor that is measured by the experimenter. It is affected by, and therefore depends on, the independent variable.
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Experimental Group
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Group that is exposed to the independent variable.
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Control Group
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Group that is exposed to all experimental conditions, except the independent variable.
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Confounding Variable
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Variables that have an unwanted influence on the outcome of an experiment. Also known as extraneous variables.
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Double-Blind Study
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A procedure in which neither the researcher nor the participant knows which group received the experimental treatment. Designed to reduce experimenter bias.
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Case Study
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An in-depth examination of a single research participant.
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Correlation Research
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The researcher observes or measures two or more naturally occurring variables to find the relationship between them. In correlation research, the researcher does not directly manipulate the variables.
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Correlation Coefficient
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A numerical value from +1.00 to -1.00 that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables. A positive correlation indicates that the two variables move or vary in the same direction. A negative correlation indicates that the two variables move or vary in opposite directions. A zero correlation indicates that there is no relationship between the variables.
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Mean
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A measure of central tendency that provides the average score. Any change in the highest score in a distribution must result in a change in this measurement.
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Median
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A measure of central tendency that divides a frequency distribution directly in half.
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Mode
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A measure of central tendency that identifies the most frequently occurring score in a distribution.
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Standard Deviation
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A measure of variability that indicates the average differences between the scores and their mean.
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Normal Distribution
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A bell-shaped curve, describing the spread of a characteristic throughout a population. In a normal distribution, half the scores fall at or above the mean and half the scores fall at or below the mean.
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Positively Skewed Distribution
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Contains a preponderance of scores on the low end of the scale. The mean will be higher than the median in this type of distribution.
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Negatively Skewed Distribution
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Contains a preponderance of scores on the high end of the scale. The mean will be lower than the median in a this type of distribution.
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P-value
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The probability of concluding that a difference exists when in fact the difference does not exist. A statistically significant difference is a difference not likely due to chance. By consensus, a statistically significant difference is one that would show up only 5% of the time or less. The smaller this value, the more significant the results.
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Neuron
A highly specialized nerve cell responsible for receiving and transmitting information in electrical and chemical forms. Neurons are the fundamental building blocks of the nervous system.
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Myelin Sheath
A white, fatty covering wrapped around the axons of some neurons, which increases the rate at which nerve impulses traveling along the axon.
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Action Potential
A brief electrical impulse by which information is transmitted along the axon of a neuron.
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All-Or-Nothing Law
The principle that either a neuron is sufficiently stimulated and an action potential occurs or a neuron is not sufficiently stimulated and an action potential does not occur.
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Endorphins
Chemical substances in the nervous system that reduce the perception of pain.
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Neurotransmitters
Chemical transmitters manufactured by a neuron. For example, acetylcholine is associated with Alzheimer's disease, dopamine is linked to schizophrenia, and serotonin is related to depression.
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Sympathetic Nervous System
Branch of the autonomic Nervous System that mobilizes body as a response to stress. Alert system, accelerating bodily functions.
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Parasympathetic Nervous System
Branch of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, maintains bodily functions, and conserves energy.
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Hypothalamus
Small brain structure beneath the thalamus that helps govern the release of hormones by the pituitary gland and regulates drives such as hunger and thirst.
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Cerebral Cortex
A thin surface layer on the cerebral hemispheres that regulates most complex behavior, including sensations, motor control, and higher mental processes such as decision making.
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Cerebral Hemispheres
The nearly symmetrical left and right halves of the cerebral cortex. The left hemisphere specializes in verbal and analytical functions. The right hemisphere focuses on nonverbal abilities such as art and music and visual recognition tasks.
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Corpus Callosum
The bundle of nerve fibers connecting the brain's left and right hemispheres. In a procedure known as split-brain surgery, neurosurgeons cut the corpus callosum to prevent the spread of epileptic seizures by disrupting communication between the right and left hemispheres.
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Amygdala
An almond-shaped part of the limbic system linked to the regulation of emotional responses, especially fear.
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Hippocampus
A curved forebrain structure that is part of the limbic system and is involved in learning and forming new memories.
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Absolute Threshold
The minimum intensity at which a stimulus an be detected at least 50% of the time. For example, humans can barely detect a candle flame from 30 miles away on a clear dark night.
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Sensory Adaptation
The decline in sensitivity to a constant stimulus. For example, the longer an individual is exposed to a strong odor, the less aware of the odor the individual becomes.
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Transduction
The process by which sensory receptors convert the incoming physical energy of stimuli, such as light waves, into neural impulses that the brain can understand.
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Signal Detection Theory
States that sensation depends on the characteristics of the stimulus, the background stimulation, and the detector. Selective attention enables you the filter out and focus on only selected sensory messages. For example, while practicing the piano, you may not hear your cell phone ring. However, if you are expecting an important call, you will hear the cell phone ring.
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Gate-Control Theory
Theory that explains how the nervous system blocks or allows pain signals to pass to the brain.
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Rods
The long, thin visual receptor cells in the retina that are highly sensitive to light, but not to color. The rods are primarily responsible for peripheral vision and black-and-white vision. Cats have better night vision than humans because they have a higher proportion of rods to cones.
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Cones
The short, thick visual receptor cells, concentrated near the center of the retina, responsible for color vision and fine detail. People who are color blind typically have deficiencies in their cones.
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Blind-Spot
The point at the back of the retina where the optic nerve leaves the ye. Since there are no visual receptor cells, this creates a small gap in field of vision called the "blind spot."
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Cochlea
The coiled, snail-shaped structure in the inner ear containing receptors for hearing.
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Circadian Rhythm
Biological processes that systematically vary of a period of about 24 hours. For example, the sleep-wake cycle, blood pressure, and pulse rate all follow circadian rhythms.
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REM Sleep
Type of sleep during which REM and dreams usually occur. REM sleep is often referred to as paradoxical sleep because it is simultaneously characterized by active eye movements and loss of muscle movement. The REM portion of the sleep cycle is longest during infancy.
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Hypnosis
A trancelike state of heightened suggestibility, deep relaxation, and intense focus. Hypnosis can be used to treat pain.
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Dissociation
The splitting of consciousness into two or more simultaneous strams of mental activity
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Classical Conditioning
Based upon the pioneering work of Ivan Pavlov. The learning process that occurs when a previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response.
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Unconditioned Stimulus
A natural stimulus (food) that reflexively elicits a response (salivation) without the need for prior learning.
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Unconditioned Response
An unlearned response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus.
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Neutral Stimulus
A stimulus that produces no conditioned response prior to learning.
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Conditioned Stimulus
The conditioned stimulus was originally the neutral stimulus. When systematically paired with the unconditioned stimulus, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus as it gains the power to cause a response.
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Conditioned Response
A conditioned response is a learned response elicited by the conditioned stimulus.
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Extinction
The gradual weakening of a conditioned behavior when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.
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Stimulus Generalization
Occurs when stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus also elicit the conditioned response.
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Stimulus Discrimination
The ability to distinguish between two similar stimuli. For example, a person who is fearful of poison oak leaves, but not oak tree leaves, is exhibiting stimulus discrimination.
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Operant Conditioning
A learning process in which behavior is shaped and maintained by consequences (rewards/punishments) that follow a response. In contrast, in classical conditioning behavior is controlled by the stimuli that precede a response.
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Reinforcement
Reinforcement strengthens a response and makes it more likely to occur.
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Positive Reinforcement
A situation in which a behavior or response is followed by the addition of a reinforcing stimulus. The stimulus increases the probability that the response will occur again.
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Negative Reinforcement
A situation in which a behavior or response is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus. Negative reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior by enabling a person to either escape an existing aversive stimulus or avoid an aversive stimulus before it occurs.
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Premack Principle
States the the opportunity to engage in a preferred activity can be used to reinforce a less-preferred activity.
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Continuous Reinforcement
A reinforcement schedule in which all correct responses are reinforced.
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Shaping
The technique of strengthening behavior by reinforcing successive approximations of a behavior until the entire correct routine is displayed.
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Intermittent Reinforcement
The rewarding of some, but not all, correct responses.
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Fixed Ratio Schedule
Reinforcement occurs after a predetermined set of responses.
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Variable Ratio Schedule
Reinforcement is unpredictable because the ratio varies.
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Fixed Interval Schedule
Reinforcement occurs after a predetermined time has elapsed.
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Variable Interval Schedule
Reinforcement occurs unpredictably since the time interval varies.
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Punishment
A process in which a behavior is followed by an aversive consequence that decreases the likelihood a behavior being repeated.
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Positive Punishment
Adding an aversive stimulus that weakens a response, making it less likely to occur.
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Negative Punishment
Taking away a stimulus that weakens a response and makes it less likely to recur.
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Observational Learning
Occurs by watching others and then imitating or modeling the observed behavior.
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Recall
The use of a general cue to retrieve a memory.
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Recognition
The use of a specific cue to retrieve a memory.
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Serial-Positioning Effect
Information at the beginning and end of a list is remembered better than the material in the middle.
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Episodic Memory
Subdivision of declarative memory that stores memories of personal experiences and events.
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Proactive Interference
Occurs when old information interferes with recalling new information. For example, your old locker combination interferes with remembering your new locker combination.
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Retroactive Interference
Occurs when new information interferes with recalling old information. For example, learning how to write an SAT essay interferes with the information you previously learned about how to write an ACT essay.
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Retrograde Amnesia
People who suffer from retrograde amnesia are unable remember some or all of their past.
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Anterograde Amnesia
People who suffer from anterograde amnesia are unable to form new memories.
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Method of Loci
The process of remembering several pieces of information by mentally associating an image of each with a different location.
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Phonemes
The smallest distinctive sound used in a language.
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Morphemes
The smallest units of meaning in language.
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Algorithm
A logical, step-by-step procedure that, if followed correctly, will eventually solve a specific problem.
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Functional Fixedness
The tendency to think of an object as functioning only in its usual or customary way. As a result, individuals often do not see unusual or innovative uses of familiar objects.
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Confirmation Bias
A preference for information that confirms preexisting positions or beliefs, while ignoring or discovering contradictory evidence.
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Heuristic
A general rule of thumb or shortcut that is used to reduce the number of possible solutions.
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Availability Heuristic
Judging the likelihood of an event based on readily available personal experiences or news reports.
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Representative Heuristics
Judging the likelihood of an event based on how well it matches a typical example or prototype.
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Divergent Thinking
A type of thinking in which problem solvers devise a number of possible alternative approaches. Divergent thinking is a major element in creativity.
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Yerkes-Dodson law
An optimal level of psychological arousal helps performances. When arousal is too low, our minds wander and we become bored. When arousal is too high, we become to anxious and freeze. People are thus motivated to seek a moderate level of stimulation that is neither too easy nor too hard.
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Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow's theory that lower motives must be met before advancing to higher needs.
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Achievement Motivation
The drive to succeed, especially in competition with others. Individuals who have a strong need for achievement seek out tasks that are moderately difficult.
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Extrinsic Motivation
Based upon external rewards or threats of punishment.
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Intrinsic Motivation
Based upon personal enjoyment of a task or activity.
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Display Rules
Cultural Norms that influence how and when emotional responses are displayed.
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James-Lange Theory
Our subjective experience of emotion follows are experience of physiological changes.
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Schater-Singer Two-Factor THeory
Physical arousal and cognitive labeling of that arousal produce our subjected experience of emotion.
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Stress
An emotional response to demands that are perceived as threatening or exceeding a person's resources or ability to cope.
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Conflict
Occurs when a person is forced to choose between two or more opposing goals or desires. Conflict can be classified as approach-approach, avoidance-avoidance, or approach-avoidance.
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General Adaptation Syndrome
Han Selye's three-stage (alarm, resistance, exhaustion) reaction to chronic stress.
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Longitudinal Method
Measures a single individual or group of individuals over an extended period of time
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Cross-Sectional Method
Compares individuals of various ages at one point in time.
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Schema
A concept of framework that organizes and interprets information.
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Assimilation
The process of absorbing new information into an existing schema
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Accommodation
The process of adjusting old schemas or developing new ones to incorporate new information.
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Object Permanence
An infant's understanding that objects or people continue to exist even when they cannot be directly seen, heard, or touched.
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Irreversibility
The child's inability to mentally reverse a sequence of events or logical operations.
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Conservation
Understanding that certain physical characteristics remain unchanged, even when yheir outward appearance changes.
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Permissive Style of Parenting
Parents set few rules, make minimal demands, and allow their children to reach their own conclusions.
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Authoritative Style of Parenting
Parents set firm rules, make reasonable demands, and listen to their child's viewpoint while still insisting on responsible behavior.
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Authoritarian Style of Parenting
Parents set rigid rules, enforce strict punishments, and rarely listen to their child's point of view.
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Psychosocial Stages
Erik Erikson's theory that individuals pass through eight developmental stages, each involving a crisis that must be successfully resolved.
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The Id
Completely unconscious. It consists of innate sexual and aggressive instincts and drives. The id is impulsive, irrational, and immature. It operates on a pleasure principle, seeking to achieve immediate gratification and avoid discomfort.
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The Superego
Partly conscious. Consists of internalized parental and societal standards. The superego operates on a morality principle, seeking to enforce ethical conduct.
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The Ego
Redides in the conscious and preconscious levels of awareness. THe ego is rational and practical. It operates on the reality principle, seeking to mediate between the demands of the id and the superego.
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Defense Mechanisms
The ego's protective method of reducing anxiety and distorting reality.
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Repression
Freud's first and most basic defense mechanism. Repression prevents unacceptable impulses from coming into conscious awareness.
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Self-Efficacy
The feelings of self-confidence or self-doubt that people bring to a specific situation
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Locus of Control
Individuals who accept personal responsibility for their life experiences have an internal locus of control. Individuals who believe that most situations are governed by chance have an external locus of control.
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Five-Factor Model
Trait theory of personality that includes openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.
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G Factor
The notion,Proposed by Charles Spearman, of a general intelligence factor that is responsible for a person's overall performance on tests of mental ability.
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Fluid Intelligence
Aspects of innate intelligence, including reasoning abilities, memory, and speed of information processing, that are relatively independent of education and tend to decline as people age.
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Crystallized Intelligence
Knowledge and skills gained through experience and education that tend fo increase over the life span.
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Standardization
Establishment of normas and uniform procedures for giving and scoring a test.
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Reliability
Measure of consistency and reproducibility of test scores during repeated administrations of a test.
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Validity
The ability of a test to measure what it is designed to measure.
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Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
Observations or behaviors that result primarily from expectations.
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DSM
Classification system developed by the APA used to describe abnormal behaviors.
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Phobias
Characterized by a strong, irrational fear of certain objects or situations that are normally considered harmless.
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Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
Characterized by persistent, repetitive, and unwanted thoughts and behaviors.
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Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
Characterized by intense feelings of anxiety, horror, and helplessness after experiencing a traumatic event such as a violent crime, natural disaster, or military combat.
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Bipolar Disorder
Characterized by periods of both depression and mania.
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Somatoform Disorders
Characterized by physical complaints about conditions that are caused by psychological factors.
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Schizophrenia
Group of severe disorders involving major disturbances in perception, language, thought, emotion, and balance. Delusional beliefs, hallucinations, and disorganized speech and thought are three key characteristic symptoms.
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Narcissistic Personality Disorder
Characterized by a grandiose sense of self importance, fantasies or unlimited success, need for excessive admiration, and a willingness to exploit others to achieve personal goals.
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Dissociative Disorders
Splitting of significant aspects of person's awareness, memory, or identity. Includes loss of memory, etc.
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Psychoanalysis
Freudian therapy designed to bring unconscious conflicts, which usually date back to childhood experiences, into consciousness.
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Cognitive Therapy
Therapy that treats problem behaviors and mental processes by focusing on faulty thought processes and beliefs.
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Rational Emotive Therapy
Developed by Albert Ellis. Cognitive therapy to eliminate emotional problems through the rational examination of irrational beliefs.
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Humanistic Therapy
Focuses of removing obstacles that block personal growth and potential
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Client-Centered Therapy
Carl Rogers's therapy emphasizing the client's natural tendency to become healthy and productive. Key techniques include empathy, unconditional positive regard, and active listening.
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Behavior Therapy
Group of techniques that use the principles of classical conditioning, operant learning, and observational learning to modify maladaptive behaviors.
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Systematic Desensitization
A gradual process of extinguishing a learned phobia by working through a hierarchy of fear-evoking stimuli while staying deeply relaxed.
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Aversion Therapy
Uses the principles of classical conditioning to create anxiety by pairing an aversive stimulas with a maladaptive behavior.
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Biomedical Therapy
Uses drugs and electroconvulsive therapy to treat psychological disorders.
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Fundamental Attribution Error
The widespread tendency to overemphasize dispositional factors and underestimate situational factors when making attributions about the cause of another person's behavior.
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Self-Serving Bias
The widespread tendency for people to take credit for their sucesses while at the same time attributing their failures to external situations beyond their control.
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Central Route to Persuasion
When people make decision based upon factual information, logical arguments, and a thoughtful analysis of pertinent details.
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Peripheral Route to Persuasion
When people make decisions based upon emotional appeals and incidental cues.
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Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon
The persuasion strategy of getting a person to agree a modest first request as a set-up for ta later much larger request.
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Cognitive Dissonance
The state of psychological tension, anxiety, and discomfort that occurs when an individual's attitude and behavior are inconsistent.
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Social Facilitation
The tendency for an individual's performance to improve when simple or well-rehearsed tasks are performed in the presence of others.
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Social Inhibition
The tendency for an individual's performance to decline when complex or poorly learned tasks are performed in the presence of others.
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Social Loafing
The phenomenon of people making less effort to achieve a goal when they work in a group rather than when they work alone.
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Deindividuation
The reduction of self-awareness and personal responsibility that can occur when a person is part of a group whose members feel anonymous.
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Bystander Effect
The tendency for individuals to be less likely to assist in an emergency situation when other people are present.
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Group Polarization
The tendency for a group's predominant opinion to become stronger or more extreme after an issue is discussed.
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Groupthink
The tendency for a cohesive decision-making group to ignore or dismiss reasonable alternatives.
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Conformity
The tendency for people to adopt the behavior, attitudes, and beliefs of other members of a group.
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Obedience
The performance of an action in response to the direct orders of an authority or person of higher status.
