Psychology 202 Flashcards
(177 cards)
1
Q
confirmation bias
A
ignoring evidence
2
Q
hindsight bias
A
“I knew it all along”
3
Q
scientific method
A
objective, systematic procedures sued to understand what is being studied
4
Q
Rene Descartes’ theory of dualism
A
maintained distinction between mind and body
5
Q
evolutionary theory
A
determining whether human mechanisms are adaptive; need to be aware of challenges from ancestors in order to understand current behavior
6
Q
four levels of analysis
A
biological, individual, social, cultural
7
Q
WEIRD science
A
Western, educated, industrial, rich, democratic
8
Q
cultural psychology
A
subfield of psychology attempting to determine how culture influences our behaviors, thoughts, motives…
9
Q
method of introspection
A
William Wundt; requires inspection and reporting on content of thoughts
10
Q
structuralism
A
Edward Titchener; conscious experience can be studied when it’s broken down into its underlying components
11
Q
functionalism
A
William James; how mental processes should be focused
12
Q
behaviorism
A
John B. Watson; environmental effects on behavior
13
Q
cognitive psychology
A
George A. Miller; higher-order mental functions like intelligence, thinking, language, memory, decision-making…
14
Q
social psychology
A
Kurt Lewin; power of situation and how people are shaped thorough this interaction
15
Q
American Psychological Association
A
code of ethics
16
Q
scientific inquiry
A
riding answers to empirical questions through observation and measurement
17
Q
scientific method
A
systematic procedures for observing and answering phenomena to answer questions
18
Q
theory
A
explanation that integrates principles and organizes and predicts behaviors/events
19
Q
steps of scientific method
A
HOMER: hypothesis, operationalize, measure, evaluate, replicate/revise/report
20
Q
(HOMER) hypothesis
A
testable prediction, often prompted by a theory
21
Q
(HOMER) operationalize
A
define a concept or variable in terms of how it will be measured or observed in a specific study
22
Q
(HOMER) constructs
A
internal characteristics that can’t be directly observed
23
Q
(HOMER) measure
A
operational definition used to develop measures or manipulations used in study
24
Q
(HOMER) evaluate
A
analyze outcomes of study
25
(HOMER) replicate
repeated studies show consistency
26
(HOMER) revise
if results don’t match expectations, revise
27
(HOMER) report
science should be reported via peer-reviewed journals
28
descriptive study
type of research that aims to observe, record, and describe behavior or phenomena without manipulating any variables
29
naturalistic observation
observing behavior in natural setting
30
participant observation
researcher becomes actively involved
31
case study
in-depth study of one individual or group
32
cross-sectional study
compares individuals of different ages at single time
33
observer bias
researcher’s expectations influence outcome of study
34
correlational study
two or more variables systematically measured to determine relationship between them
35
directionality problem
with correlational study; not knowing whether variable A causes variable B or vise versa
36
scatterpolots
graph with points generated by two variables with slope depicting direction and amount of scatter depicting strength of variable relationship
37
survey
self-reported attitudes, options, and behavior usually done by questioning random samples of people
38
random sampling
each member of population has equal chance of inclusion in sample
39
selection bias
from non-random sampling; causes some groups to be over or under represented in study
40
illusory correaltion
perception of relationship where no relationship actually exists
41
order of random events
given random data, we look for order and meaningful patterns
42
experimental studies
exploring cause and effect
43
independent variable
manipulated by experiment (cause)
44
dependent variable
measured by experimenter (effect)
45
experimental group
group receiving treatment of interest in study
46
control group
group with no treatment and is used for comparing
47
Zimbardo
noticed relationship between anonymity and antisocial behavior
48
random assignment
assigning participants to experiential and control conditions at random
49
reliability
extent to which measure is stable and consistent
50
validity
extent o which experimenter can make confident statements about cause and effect
51
confound
variable influencing both dependent and independent variable leading to false association between them
52
random assignment
assigned at random to control or experimental group
53
accuracy
extent to which experiment is free from error
54
random error
value of error differs each time
55
systematic error
value of error is consatnt
56
statistical reasoning
analyze data allowing us to see what naked eye misses
57
describing data
misrepresentation of data may lead to incorrect conclusions
58
descriptive statistics
statistics used to summarize data collected (central tendency and variability
59
measures of central tendency
mean, median, mode
60
variability
in a set of numbers, how widely dispersed the values are from each other and the mean
61
measures of variation
range and stdv
62
inferential statistics
procedures used to make judgements about whether differences actually exist between sets of numbers
63
longitudinal studies
research following same people over a long period of time, observing their changes and developments
64
populaion
group you want to know more about
65
random sample
taken at random from population
66
convenience sample
taken at random from available subgroup in population
67
external validity
to what extent do the findings of a study generalize to other people and situations
68
replication
repeating a study, often with different subject populations or in different settings
69
Institutional review boards
IRBs; groups of people responsible for reviving proposed research to ensure it meets standards of positions of participants
70
privacy
researchers should be aware of their questions’ impact
71
confidentiality
only the researcher can identify the responses of individual participants
72
anonymity
no identifiable information is collected from participant
73
informed consent
participants have the right to know the risks and benefits of their study
74
risk/benefit ratio
analysis of whether the research is important enough to warrant the possible risks of participation
75
developmental psychology
study of changes over lifespan
76
stages of development
prenatal, infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood
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prenatal
conception to birth
78
infancy
birth to 18-24 months
79
childhood
infancy to 11-14
80
adolescence
childhood to 18-21
81
adulthood
adolescence to death
82
zygote
fertilized egg from sperm
83
embryo
developing human after zygote
84
fetus
after embryo, grows larger
85
teratogens
harm embryo (alcohol, druges, bacteria...)
86
rooting reflex
turning sucking when something touches mouth
87
grasping reflex
grasp object that applies pressure to palm
88
babinsky reflex
foot/toes curl when sole of foot touched
89
sucking reflex
close mouth on nipple and draw milk
90
dynamic systems theory
development is a self-organizing process
91
myeline sheath
fatty material insulating wires
92
myelination
protective neuron covering
93
synaptic pruning
use it or lose it
94
critical periods
windows of time development where experiences must happen for normal development to proceed
95
sensitive periods
times when specific skills develop most easily
96
Jean Piaget’s stages
sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational
97
sensorimotor
birth to 2 years, separates self from objects
98
preoperational
2-7 years, reason on intuition rather than logic, represent objects by images and words
99
concerte operational
7-12, think logically about objets, transform mathematical functions
100
formal operational
12 and up, think abstract and hypothetically
101
vygotsky’s view
child’s cognitive development is understood though their acquisition of language, ho they interact with others, and their cultural context
102
schema
cognitive structures helping us organize information
103
assimilation
add new information to existing schema
104
accommodation
create new schema or alter past schema to include new information
105
theory of mind
term used to describe ability to explain one’s behavior as a result of recognizing their mental state
106
oxytocin
maternal tendencies, sucking trigger release in mother and stimulate movement of milk
107
secure attachment
infant confident enough to play in unfamiliar environment as long as caregiver is present; comforted by caregiver during stressful times
108
insecure, anxious, avoidant attachment
avoid contact with caregiver
109
disorganized attachment
result of trauma/abuse, inconsistent behaviors toward caregiver
110
primary sex characteristics
maturation of male and female se organs
111
secondary sexual characteristics
pubic hair, body hair, muscle mass increase, fat deposits on hips/breasts
112
biological sex
chromosomes and associated physical characteristics
113
intersex
chromosomes and physical characteristics don’t correspond neatly
114
transgender
biological sex doesn’t match gender identity
115
gender role
socialized norm for male/female
116
3 levels of moral thinking
pre conventional, conventional, post conventional
117
pre conventional morality
before 9, children show morality to avoid punishment or gain reward
118
conventional morality
early adolescence, social rules and laws upheld for own sake
119
post-conventional morality
affirms people’s agreed-upon right or follows own ethical principles
120
frontal cortex
neurons in frontal cortex grow myelin, speeding up nerve conduction
121
gender identity
own beliefs about if one if male or female
122
Erikson’s 8 stages
infancy, toddler, preschool, childhood, adolescence, young adult, middle adult, old age
123
fluid intelligence
ability to reason speedily
124
crystalline intelligence
accumulation and knowledge and skills
125
adulthood’s 3 challenges
intimacy vs isolation, generatively vs stagnation, integrity vs despair
126
need
state of biological, social, and psychological deficiency
127
drive
psychological state creating arousal
128
set-point
optimal level for physiological state
129
Maslow’s need hierarchy
self actualization, esteem, belonging and love, safety, physiological
130
incentives
external objects or goals motivating behaviors
131
Yerke’s-Dodson
performance increases with arousal up to optimal point then decreases with still increasing arousal
132
extrinsic motivation
external goals an activity is directed toward
133
intrinsic motivation
value or pleasure associated with activity
134
delayed gratification
ability to postpone immediate gratification
135
need-to-belong teory
interpersonal attachments are fundamental
136
self-affirmation theory
Claude Steele; people have need to view and present themselves as coherent and stable
137
self-determination theory
people are motivated to satisfy needs for competence
138
emotion
immediate negative or positive response to environmental events or internal thoughts
139
feeling
subjective experience of emotion (scared, proud, happy)
140
mood
long-lasting emotional state
141
6 major emotional expressions
happiness, anger, surprise, fear, disgust, sadness
142
slow path
information from thalamus through usual cortex to amygdala, more accurate
143
fast path
thalamus right to amygdala, less accurate
144
right prefrontal cortex
negative affect activation
145
left prefrontal cortex
postive affect activation
146
primary emotions
evolutionarily adaptive and shared across cultures
147
secondary emotions
blends of primary emotions
148
two-factor theory of emotion
when people experience arousal, they initiate a search for its source
149
misattribution of arousal
misidentifying source of arousal
150
excitation transfer
arousal from one event transferred to new stimulus
151
James-Lange tgeory
bodily response leads to emotion
152
facial feedback hypothesis
facial expressions trigger that emotion
153
Cannon-Bard theory
bodily response and emotion experienced separately and simultaneously
154
Schacter
female shock test and pain/painless -- asked to wait alone of with others; misery loves miserable company
155
Schacter-Singer two-factor theory
a bodily response is labeled with an explanation, leading to an emotion
156
thought suppression
attempts not to feel or respond to emotion
157
rumination
thinking about undesired thoughts
158
buffering hypothesis
social support can protect or buffer people from harmful effects of stress
159
tightness-looseness spectrum
tighter cultures place greater value on adherence to social norms than looser cultures
160
placebos
believing you will get better; can lead to improve health even if treatment is inert
161
socioeconomic status
relative standing in society as a function of resources such as income, wealth, and education
162
stressor
something perceived as threatening or demanding
163
major life stressors
changes or disruptions to life such as having a kid
164
chronic stress
set of ongoing challenges such as poverty or caregiving
165
daily hassles
day-to-day irritations like waiting in line or traffic
166
three states of general adaptation syndrome
alarm, resistance, exhaustion
167
alarm
emergency response
168
resistence
defenses maximized
169
exhaustion
systems fail
170
fight-or-flight
preparing to escape threat or overcome it with force
171
tend-and-befriend
women respond to stress by protecting and caring for offspring, as well as forming alliances to reduce individual risk
172
primary appraisals
we decide whether stimuli are stressful, benign, or irrelevant
173
secondary appraisals
once we perceive event as stressful, we evaluate our response options and choose coping strategies
174
anticipatory coping
coping that occurs before onset of future stressor
175
hardiness
commitment, challenge, control
176
emotion-focused coping
avoidance, minimizing the problem
177
problem-focused coping
taking direct steps to solve problem
