Psychology

Question 1

Social constructionism

Answer 1

The beliefs and shared understandings of individuals create social realities i.e. Social constructionism could be involved in healthcare disparities, such as in the process of building our societal understanding of healthcare and illness, but is not as directly related to healthcare disparities

Question 2

Symbolic interactionism

Answer 2

Allows for social determination of shared realities Focuses on a smaller scale of interaction between individuals and small groups

Question 3

Functionalism

Answer 3

Claims that society just like an organism that consists of different components working together examines the harmonious functioning of social institutions and thus is not generally used to examine societal problems like health care disparity

Question 4

Conflict theory

Answer 4

Views society in terms of competing groups that act according to their own self-interest Addresses inequalities between social groups that have the potential to lead to societal conflict

Question 5

Social norms

Answer 5

Expectations that govern what behavior is acceptable within a group

Question 6

Symbolic culture

Answer 6

A type of non material culture that consists of the elements of culture that have meaning only in the mind For example: handshake Symbolic meanings are culturally situated and are determined by experiences and socia interactions

Question 7

Society

Answer 7

A group of people who share a culture Can consists of multiple culture like the USA

Question 8

Social movement

Answer 8

A group of people who share an ideology and work together toward a specified set of goals

Question 9

Spatial inequality

Answer 9

The unequal access to resources and variable quality of life within a population or geographical distribution. Can be affected by income, unemployment and unequal access to resources such as education and clean water. Influences health by affecting access to doctors, diagnostic equipment, and options of treaments. Can exist on a global, national, or local level.

Question 10

Environmental justice

Answer 10

The equal treatment of all people regardless of race, gender, or other social grouping with regard to prevention and relief from environmental and health hazards.

Question 11

Residential segregation

Answer 11

An instance of social inequality on the local scale.

Question 12

Social class

Answer 12

A system of stratification that groups members of society according to similarities in social standing

Question 13

Class

Answer 13

is multifaceted and tied to status within a community and power, or influence over that community

Question 14

Prestige

Answer 14

the relative value assigned to something within a particular society exp: including holding aristocratic titles, maintaining a respected occupation or conspicuous consumption of luxury goods

Question 15

Associative learning / Conditioning

Answer 15

Learning that involves associations between certain stimuli and specific responses 2 types: _ Classical conditioning _ Operant conditioning

Question 16

Classical conditioning

Answer 16

Where a test subject develops a response to a previously neutral stimulus by associating the stimulus with another stimulus that already elicited that response

Question 17

Neutral stimulus

Answer 17

a stimulus eliciting no response

Question 18

Acquisition

Answer 18

a stage of learning over which a conditioned response to a new stimulus is established

Question 19

Spontaneous recovery

Answer 19

the reappearance of the conditioned response after a period of lessened response

Question 20

Extinction

Answer 20

the disappearance of the conditioned response of salivation

Question 21

Stimulus generalization

Answer 21

The tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus

Question 22

Stimulus discrimination

Answer 22

The learned lack of response to ta stimulus similar to the conditioned stimulus

Question 23

Operant conditioning

Answer 23

A type of associative learning in which an individual becomes more or less likely to carry out a certain behavior based on its consequences Involves learning the consequences of behaviors and adjusting the frequencies of those behaviors in response to the consequences

Question 24

Innate behaviors

Answer 24

Behaviors that are developmentally fixed Heavily influenced by the physiology and genetic inheritance of the organism and are difficult or impossible to change through learning

Question 25

Mirror neurons

Answer 25

fire both when a person is completing an action and when the person observes someone else completing the same action help humans understand the actions of others and learn by imitation

Question 26

Vicarious emtions

Answer 26

feeling the emotions of others as though they are ones's own

Question 27

Social behavior

Answer 27

broadly defined as all interactions taking place between members of the same species

Question 28

Foraging behavior

Answer 28

The set of behaviors through which animals obtain food

Question 29

Inclusive fitness

Answer 29

describes overall fitness by considering not only the individual's own progeny, but also the offspring of its close relatives

Question 30

Game theory

Answer 30

The use of mathematical models to represent complex decision making in which the actions of other group members must be taken into account

Question 31

Group

Answer 31

A set of individuals who interact with each other and share some elements of identity

Question 32

Organization

Answer 32

A collection of individuals joining together to coordinate their interactions toward a specific purpose

Question 33

Impression management

Answer 33

The process of consciously making behavioral choices in order to create a specific impression in the minds of others the process of modifying one's behavior in order to consciously change the perception that others have of oneself; does not involve self-image

Question 34

Dramaturgical approach

Answer 34

using a metaphor from the theater to help explain human behavioral patterns in social situations

Question 35

Groupthink

Answer 35

The phenomenon where a group's members tend to think alike and agree for the sake of group harmony when unpopular opinions are silenced in order to attain consensus in decision making

Question 36

Group polarization

Answer 36

occurs when through the interactions and discussions of the group, the attitude of the group as a whole toward a particular issue becomes stronger than the attitudes of its individual members

Question 37

Social facilitation

Answer 37

The tendency to perform better when a person knows he is being watched

Question 38

Bystander effect

Answer 38

where onlookers in a crowd fail to offer assistance to a person who is in trouble because they assume that someone else will help

Question 39

Diffusion of responsibility

Answer 39

Where people in a large, anonymous crowd are less likely to feel accountable for the outcome of a situation or to feel responsibility to take action

Question 40

Social loafing

Answer 40

Occurs when members of a group decrease the pace or intensity of their own work with the intention of letting other group members work harder

Question 41

Deindividuation

Answer 41

Occurs when people lose awareness of their individuality and instead immerse themselves in the mood or activities of a crowd.

Question 42

Demographics

Answer 42

are societal categories that include age and educational level

Question 43

Cultural capital

Answer 43

is what you know

Question 44

Social capital

Answer 44

is who you know

Question 45

Socioeconomic status

Answer 45

describes both economic position, in terms of income and acquired wealth, and social position, in terms of factors like education and profession

Question 46

Social reproduction

Answer 46

The transmission of social inequality from one generation to the next

Question 47

Absolute poverty

Answer 47

is not defined by comparisons with others

Question 48

Relative poverty

Answer 48

compare themselves with others

Question 49

Social exclusion

Answer 49

The systemic exclusion of individuals or groups from certain rights, opportunities, or meaningful participation in certain aspects of society

Question 50

Cultural relativist

Answer 50

Attempt to understand a culture on its own terms, recognizing that each culture has different values and standards. Cultural relativism specifically does not imply comparisons between cultures,

Question 51

Personality

Answer 51

The collection of lasting characteristics that makes a person unique consists of a set of traits

Question 52

Traits

Answer 52

characteristics that vary between people and are stable over the course of the lifetime, regardless of environmental factors They are continuous variables rather than categorical

Question 53

Biological theory

Answer 53

focuses on biological contributions to certain traits assumes that a person's genome contributes to the formation of personality and that personality traits differ in the extent to which they are influenced by heredity versus environmental factors

Question 54

Temperament

Answer 54

an innate, genetically influenced "baseline" of personality that includes the infant's towards certain patterns of emotion and social interaction Temperament is then modified by environmental influences

Question 55

Psychoanalytic theory

Answer 55

Proposes a universal personality structure that contributes both to behavior and to differences between people Stands in contrast to trait theories and biological theories, which do not focus on the internal processes that shape personality and translate personality traits into behaviors The most important feature os psychoanalytic theory is the assumption that crucial personality processes take place outside of conscious awareness. Though the dynamics of the three personality structures determine the characteristics and behaviors of an individual, the conflict does not take place in the individual's conscious awareness Another important aspect of this theory is that early experiences can have lasting effects on the individual throughout life

Question 56

Freud theory (psychoanalytic theory)

Answer 56

Personality is determined by the flow of psychic energy between three systems that reside in different levels of consciousness: the id, the superego, and the ego

Question 57

The id

Answer 57

The most primitive part of personality, which seeks instant gratification with no consideration for morality or social norms It is present from birth and is motivated by the desire to achieve immediate gratification and avoid pain

Question 58

The superego

Answer 58

Develops later in life through internalization of society's rules for moral behavior, learned primarily through interactions with caregivers

Question 59

The ego

Answer 59

The part of personality that is forced to direct behavior in a way that balances the demands of the id and the superego The ego forces the delay of gratification of the id's desires until a socially acceptable method of gratification is found

Question 60

Behaviorist theory

Answer 60

Personality is constructed by a series of learning experiences that occur through interactions between the individual and their environment Here it is the environment that shapes personality rather than biological factors or inherent psychological drives More interested in external behaviors than internal behaviors believes that personality IS behavior Per

Question 61

Trait theory vs psychoanalytic theory

Answer 61

can be compared to two different ways of studying a machine Trait theory is only interested in the ability to predict what the machine will do, whereas the psychoanalytic perspective is interested in the hidden internal workings of the machine and how they produce the machine's function

Question 62

Social cognitive theory

Answer 62

Focuses on leaning experiences and observable behaviors like the behaviorist theory It differs in that it considers the contributions of an individual's mental life and personal choices Explores how thought and emotion affect both the learning process and the experiences and surrounding that people choose for themselves Includes the process of observational learning A key concept in this theory is reciprocal causation

Question 63

Observational learning

Answer 63

people learn from the experiences of others and apply the lessons of previous experiences to new situations

Question 64

Reciprocal causation

Answer 64

states that behavior, personal factors , and the environment continually interact and influence each other

Question 65

Humanistic theory

Answer 65

Says that people continually seek experiences that make them better, more fulfilled individuals This theory points to the role of an individual in shaping his or her own personality According to this theory, conscious decisions, rather than stable, uncontrollable traits or unconscious impulses, make people who they are

Question 66

Carl Rogers

Answer 66

An influential humanistic psychologist according to him, an individual has a healthy personality when his or her actual self, ideal self, and perceived self (self-concept) overlap.

Question 67

The situational approach to explaining behavior

Answer 67

The concept of enduring personality traits is fatally flawed because of the variations in behavior that occur across different situations This situational approach shifts the focus from internal, stable traits to external, changing circumstances. Still allows for stability in personality because people behave according to their interpretations of situations Think of this approach as an "if-then" theory states that a personality trait is not a useful construct for understanding personality or predicting an individual's behavior due to variability across situations do not take the existence of personality traits

Question 68

Identity

Answer 68

Can be thought of as a person's view of who they are in terms of both internal factors, including personality traits, and social or external factors, like group membership. Differs from personality by placing a larger emphasis on the individual's own perception of self. Allows individuals to see themselves as constant, but it also maintains enough flexibility to change in response to experience, such as a career change Although identity is an internal concept, a person's identity includes a model of how he or she generally behaves in social settings. Identity can be understood best by examining two components: the personal and the social.

Question 69

Self-concept

Answer 69

The most personal aspect of identity It is the knowledge of one-self as a person both separate from other people and constant throughout changing situations. It can be thought of as a person's view of his or her own personality Is developed as refined through interactions with others Once a person has a well-developed self-concept, he or she will intentionally act in ways that uphold that self-concept and may have a strong emotional response to circumstances that threaten its validity.

Question 70

Social identity

Answer 70

The perception of oneself as a member of certain social groups involves a cognitive and emotional component Cognitive component is the categorization of oneself into a certain group Emotional component comes from an individual's emotional attachment to the groups with which they identify Social identity is a flexible concept While it remains a fairly stable part of the self, it also allows for variation across different social contexts and levels of society

Question 71

Different types of identities

Answer 71

race/ethnicity, gender, age, sexual orientation, and class (demographics)

Question 72

Socialization

Answer 72

the process by which developing individuals learn the values, norms, and appropriate behaviors of their society, continuing throughout the lifespan The way in which children learn the culture into which they have been born Culture is the guiding force for socialization

Question 73

Influence of individuals

Answer 73

Involved in both socialization and identity formation

Question 74

Role-taking

Answer 74

adopting the role of another person, either by imitating behaviors associated with specific social roles or by taking the other person's point of view in social interaction

Question 75

Social comparison

Answer 75

evaluating oneself by contrast with others, facilitates the development of a distinct sense of self in terms of similarity with and difference from other people

Question 76

Reference group

Answer 76

A group that provides him or her with a model for appropriate actions, values, and worldviews People tend to choose reference groups that align with their own identities, and the groups then exert their own influence on the individual's identity

Question 77

Self-esteem

Answer 77

A person's overall value judgment of him or her self. High self-esteem -\> positive self-concept

Question 78

Self-efficacy

Answer 78

the feeling of being able to carry out an action successfully affects the types of experiences that people choose and how well they perform also implicated in the social cognitive theory of personality since it is a personal characteristic that affects the behaviors and interactions with the environment that shape personality

Question 79

Locus of control

Answer 79

a person's belief about the extent to which internal or external factors play a role in shaping his or her life