Psychology Flashcards
What is Learning Theory?
Learning is defined as a process which experience produces a relatively enduring change in an organism’s behaviour or capabilities. Learning theory is from the perspective of behaviourists, exploring the concepts of Classical and Operant Conditioning as well as Observational learning.
What are the elements of behaviour?
There are three elements to behaviour: A.B.C:
- Antecedent: A cue which is an environmental stimulus that exists before the behaviour of interest, these may be internal of external to the subject.
- Behaviour: The behaviour of interest.
- Consequence: a stimulus which follows the behaviour of interest.
What is habituation?
Habituation is where the nervous system learns to ignore a stimulus. Habituation if due to reduced neurotransmitter release by the sensory neurone and relevant interneurones in response to the stimulus (usually tactile). The memory of habituation is distributed across several synapses in the circuit.
What is sensitisation?
Sensitisation is where the nervous system learns to increase the response to a stimulus. This is usually due to a harmful stimulus, leading to greater neurotransmitter release.
What is Classical Conditioning?
Classical Conditioning is the linking of a previously neutral stimulus to an unconditioned stimulus to create a conditioned stimulus to elicit the automatic response.
What are the different stimuli and response terms used when describing classical conditioning?
An unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is a stimulus that elicits a reflexive or innate response without prior learning.
A conditioned stimulus (CS) is a stimulus that, through association with a UCS comes to elicit a conditioned response similar to the original UCR.
An unconditioned response (UCR) is a reflexive or innate response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus without prior learning.
A conditioned response (CR) is a response elicited by a conditioned stimulus.
When is classical conditioning strongest?
Classical conditioning is strongest when:
• There are repeated CS-UCS pairings
• The UCS is more intense
• The sequence involves forward pairing (When the UCS is introduced after the CS)
• The time interval between the CS and UCS is short
By what process does classical conditioning become weaker?
The classical conditioning does not last forever; presenting the conditioned stimulus in the absence of the UCS causes the conditioned response to weaken, and eventually disappear. This is a process called extinction.
What is stimulus generalisation?
Stimulus generalisation is the tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar but not identical. For example, Pavlov’s dog may also respond to a tone. However, the similar stimulus needs to be a similar frequency to the CS.
What is higher order conditioning?
Higher order conditioning occurs when the conditioned stimulus is associated with another stimulus (previously neutral). For example, Pavlov’s dog may associate a light with the bell.
Describe the basis of Operant Conditioning
Thorndike’s Law of Effect states that what happens as a result of behaviour (the consequence) will influence the rate of occurrence of that behaviour. If the consequences are positive, the behaviour is likely to be repeated, if the consequences are aversive, it is less likely to be repeated. Operant conditioning is behaviour that is learned and maintained by its consequences. The conditioning can be maintained by a reinforcement or punishment.
What is the difference between a reinforcement and a punishment?
A reinforcement is when a response is strengthened by an outcome that follows it.
A punishment is when the response is weakened by an outcome that follows it.
What is the most powerful method for operant conditioning?
Positive reinforcement is a much more potent influencer of behaviour compared to punishment. This is because punishment can only make certain behaviours less frequent, while reinforcement can teach new behaviours.
Define and describe the various schedules of reinforcement
A fixed interval schedule is reinforcement that occurs after a fix time. A variable interval schedule is where time interval time varies at random around average.
A fixed ratio interval is where reinforcement is given after a fixed number of responses. A variable ratio schedule is where reinforcement is given after a variable number of responses, all cantered around a mean.
Describe a cognitive psychologist’s take on learning
Cognitive theorists rejected behaviourism for not paying attention to the internal world of people as active meaning-maker. They argued people are not just passive agents to various environmental reinforcers but highlighted the role of introspection and innate capacity (e.g. for language development).
Define health behaviour
Health behaviour is an activity undertaken by an individual believing himself to be healthy, for the purpose of preventing disease or detecting it at an asymptomatic stage.
Explain the role of health education in disease prevention.
Education has an important role in DISCRETE behaviours such as getting a child vaccinated. However, people need more than knowledge to change habitual lifestyle behaviours. We therefore use a combined approach of education, individualised support, as well as economic and regulatory support.
Why do many unhealthy behaviours become habitual?
due to regular repetition of a cue, a behaviour, and a reward. Unhealthy bevaiours are able to provide positive reinforcement when dopamine is released in the NAcc. And negative reinforcement when avoiding negative emotions while comfort eating.
What are Bandura’s steps in modelling?
- Pay attention to model
- Remember what was done
- Must be able to reproduce modelled behaviour
- If successful or behaviour is rewarded, behaviour is more likely to occur
Describe Bandura’s Bobo Doll experiment
His Bobo Doll experiment (1961) showed children could learn to imitate adult behaviour in the absence of reinforcement. Bandura arranged for 24 boys and girls to watch a male or female model behaving aggressively towards a toy called a ‘Bobo doll’. Another 24 children were exposed no a non-aggressive model, and another 24 children not exposed to any model at all. It was found that children who observed the aggressive models made far more imitative aggressive responses than those who were in the non-aggressive or control groups.
Who’s experiment showed that the effect of education on smoking was negligible?
Nutbeam et al (1993)
What did Janis and Fesbach (1953) show?
fear arousal was actually counterproductive when trying to learn a behaviour, as it can lead to denial and avoidance behaviour.
What is the expectancy-value theory?
The expectancy-value theory states that the potential for a behaviour to occur is a function of the expectancy that the behaviour will lead to a certain outcome, and the value of the outcome.
Define self-efficacy
Self-efficacy refers to an individual’s belief in his or her capacity to execute behaviours necessary to produce specific performance attainments
What are the four sources of self-efficacy?
- Experience – the experience of mastery is the most important factor determining a person’s self-efficacy. Success
raises self-efficacy, while failure lowers it. - Modelling - Modelling is experienced as, “If they can do it, I can do it as well.” When we see someone succeeding,
our own self-efficacy increases; where we see people failing, our self-efficacy decreases. - Social persuasion – discouragement is more effective in lowering self-efficacy than encouragement
- Physiological factors - Getting ‘butterflies in the stomach’ before public speaking will be interpreted by someone
with low self-efficacy as a sign of inability, thus decreasing self-efficacy further, where high self-efficacy would lead to interpreting such physiological signs as normal and unrelated to ability.
Outline the Health Beliefs model.
Perceived Threat and Perceived benefits vs costs influences likelihood of behavioural change.
Background variable such as age, personality, knowledge affects above inputs. Also affects perceived susceptibility and perceived seriousness, which affects perceived threat.
Cues to action also affects perceived threat.
Online the Theory of Planned Behaviour
The theory states that attitude toward behaviour, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control, together influence one’s INTENTION of changing behaviour.
The intention and perceived behavioural control will then dictate if one will change behaviour
Outline the Transtheoretical Model of Change
the stages of change, which are: pre-contemplation –> contemplation –> preparation –> action –> maintenance. However, it can lead to relapse, from which one must start over again - but learning from each replace
Define and discriminate between sensation and perception.
- Sensation is the stimulus detection process by which our sense organs respond to and translate environmental stimuli into nerve impulses that are sent to the brain.
- Perception is the active process of organising the stimulus output and giving it meaning.
Contrast bottom-up and top-down processing of sensory information.
- Bottom-up processing is a process that consists of recognising and processing information from individual components of a stimuli and constructing a perception of the whole.
- Top-down processing is when prior knowledge, expectations or thoughts act on this information to influence our final perceptual state
Define attention
Attention is the process of focusing consciousness awareness, providing heightened sensitivity to a limited range of experience requiring more intensive processing.
What are the two processes of attention?
- Focusing on a particular aspect
- Filtering out other information
Describe different influences on perception and attention.
- Properties of the stimulus can affect attention, for example, intensity, movement, novelty, contrast and repetition.
- Personal factors can also affect attention such as one’s motives, interests, threats, mood and arousal level.
Describe factors affecting perception of physical symptoms.
- Attention (paying attention will increase its presence in our minds)
- Environment (such as perceived proximity to a threat)
- Expectation
- Emotion
Describe the impact of attentional and perceptual processes on when clinical mistakes are more likely to be made
When:
- The correct response is not the strongest nor the most habitual
- When full attention is not given
- Under stress of anxiety
Describe how the processes of attention can contribute to medical errors
Attention is narrowed when we’re stressed, this is actually beneficial when dealing with emergencies, as the clinician is able to focus their attention solely on the emergency. However, this also means that peripheral information is often ignored, leading to errors.
When does the critical period of language acquision end?
- after age 8
Explain the importance of hemisphere lateralization and the regions of the brain involved in
language
There is hemispheric specialisation for language where the left hemisphere is involved. 95% of right-handed people have left-hemisphere dominance for language. Only 18.8% of left-handed people have right-handed dominance of language.
Define aphasia
Aphasia is a disturbance in formation and comprehension in language.
What are the main types of aphasia?
- Broca’s (expressive) aphasia is characterised by non fluent speech but in tact comprehension.
- Wenicke’s (receptive) aphasia is characterised by problems in comprehending speech, but with fluent meaningless speech.
Where is Broca’a area?
In the frontal lobe
Where is Werkicke’s area?
In the posterior superior temporal gyrus.
Describe the Wernicke-Geshwind model of language
- Sounds are first processed by the auditory cortex which passes its input to..
- Wernicke’s area where the sounds are decoded and comprehended (a similar process occurs for written
words except that in this case, information flows from the visual cortex to the angular gyrus before passing to
Wernicke’s area) - Then, if a response is necessary, Wernicke’s area further translates thought processes into verbal responses
which are transmitted to Broca’s area via the left arcuate fasciculus - In Broca’s area, there are necessary neurons for articulation and complex muscle co-ordination so that the
appropriate spoken language reply can be voiced.
Define the dysexecutive syndrome
Dysexecutive syndrome is a series of symptoms usually resulting from brain damage, which fall into cognitive, behavioural and emotional categories and tend to occur together.
Define temperament
Temperament refers to those aspects of an individual’s personality, such as introversion or extroversion, that are often regarded as innate rather than learned.
Describe nature and nurture in developmental psychology
Nature sets out a course via gender, genetics, temperament and maturation stages. Nurture shapes this predetermined course via the environment; parenting, stimulation and nutrition.
Describe the process of reciprocal development
It can take a child about a year to walk, however, babies are able to imitate expressions (e.g. sticking out tongue). Adults respond, imitate, soothe, talk and so the social dance begins. This reciprocal socialisation is actually bidirectional – children socialise the parents just as the parents socialise the children. The behaviours of mothers and infants involve substantial interconnection, mutual regulation, and synchronisation
Explain how parents can provide a supportive environment for development
- Scaffolding
- Reciprocal socialisation
- Providing a stimulating and enriching environment
Define attachment
Attachment is the strong emotional bond that develops between children and their primary caregivers over the first few years of life.
