Psychology Final Flashcards
(111 cards)
1
Q
obesity and common measures
A
-no formal definition
-BMI over certain number
-BMI: underweight, normal weight, overweight, obese
2
Q
common behaviors that affect health and the changes in common causes of death over time
A
-obesity, smoking, exercise
-leading causes of death today are mostly outcomes of lifestyle
-causes of death used to be mostly infections and diseases
3
Q
genetic influence on obesity
A
-obesity runs in families
4
Q
cultural variability in body weight preferences
A
-heavier women used to be found more attractive
-increase in preference for slender bodies now
5
Q
stigma of obesity
A
-discrimination against obese people
-obese linked with low self-esteem and medical problems
-models are much taller and lighter than the average person
6
Q
why restrictive dieting doesn’t work
A
-after food deprivation, the body needs less food to maintain a given weight
-repeating cycles of restricted dieting can change metabolism to be slower
7
Q
restrained eating
A
-restrained eaters more prone to dieting then excessive eating
-brain’s reward systems encourage more eating after diets are broken
8
Q
eating disorders
A
-anorexia nervosa: excessive fear of becoming fat and a refusal to eat
-bulimia nervosa: dieting, binge-eating, purging
-binge-eating disorder: binging at least twice weakly without purging
9
Q
smoking statistics and health links to it
A
-1 in 5 adult Americans
-starting age 11-17
-linked to several forms of cancer
10
Q
benefits of exercise
A
-reduced depression, enhanced memory
-promotes neurogenesis
-30min daily for most positive mental state
11
Q
habits for maintaining good health
A
-stopping bad habits
-stopping smoking/nicotine patches
-successful weight-loss programs
12
Q
positive attitude and overall health
A
-social support and social integration associated with good health
-higher hope=lower risk of disease
13
Q
oxytocin, testosterone, trust
A
-oxytocin released when one person trusts another
-men release large amounts of testosterone in situations when they don’t trust each other
-women don’t follow this trend
14
Q
social support benefits
A
-social support reduces stress and provides emotional support (buffering hypothesis)
15
Q
relationship status and health
A
-single women have 50% greater mortality than married women
-single men have 250% greater mortality than married men
-troubled relationships associated with increased stress and negative health
16
Q
what is social psychology
A
-how people’s thoughts, behaviors, and feelings are influenced by others
17
Q
how attitudes guide behavior
A
-attitudes formed through experience
-strong attitudes toward something are shown in behavior
18
Q
attitude definition and its components
A
-attitudes are evaluations of people, objects, ideas
-attitudes have cognitive, affective, and behavioral component
-direct experience and exposure shapes attitudes
19
Q
explicit vs implicit attitudes
A
-explicit: people is aware and can report
-implicit: influence feelings at unconscious level
20
Q
cognitive dissonance theory
A
-feeling of discomfort caused by performing an action that runs counter to one’s usually positive conception of themselves
-occurs when confronted with information implying irrational behavior
-dissonance most powerful when threatening one’s self-image
21
Q
three basic ways to reduce cognitive dissonance
A
- change behavior to align with dissonant cognition
- justify behavior by changing one of the dissonant cognitions
- justify behavior by adding new cognitions
22
Q
post-decision dissonance
A
the discomfort or tension felt after making a decision, especially when choosing between two appealing options.
23
Q
persuasion and attitude change (elaboration likelihood model) - central vs peripheral route
A
-attitudes can be changed through persuasion
-critical factors influencing persuasion: source, content, receiver
-model says persuasion leads to attitude change
-central route: people pay attention to arguments, consider information, use rational processes, leading to stronger, lasting, resistant attitudes
-peripheral route: people minimally process the message, leading to more impulsive action
24
Q
social perception
A
-study of how we form impressions of and make inferences about other people
25
nonverbal behavior
-facial expressions, tone of voice, gaze, body position...
26
facial expressions of emotion
-six major emotional expressions: anger, happiness, surprise, fear, disgust, sadness
27
implicit personality theories
-a schema used to group traits together (kind people are also generous)
28
culture and nonverbal communication
-display rules are particular to each culture and dictate what emotional expressions people should show
-emblems are nonverbal gestures with well-understood definitions within a culture
29
causal attribution and attribution theory
-causal attribution answers the “why” regarding people’s behavior
-attribution theory is the process of doing causal attribution
30
types of attributions
-when deciding the cause of a behavior, we make one of two attributions
-internal: inference that behavior is due to something about the person
-external: inference that behavior is due to something about the situation/environment
31
stereotypes
-schemas about groups
-generalization about a group of people with identical characteristics
-cognitive process
-based on automatic categorization
32
automatic and controlled processing of stereotypes
-stereotypes can be automatically triggered
-we have no control and can’t stop them from occurring
-people who are not deeply prejudiced can use control processes to suppress or override these stereotyping
33
prejudice and discrimination
-attitudes and beliefs about groups are prejudice
-prejudice is an evaluation of groups of people, including an affective or attitudinal response associated with stereotypes (usually negative)
-discrimination involves unjustified and inappropriate treatment of people as a result of prejudice
-negative stereotypes can lead to prejudice
34
in-group/out-group bias and social categorization
-in/outgroup bias involves forming associations about members of a group learning to a bias
-ingroup is the group where someone identifies
-outgroup is “inferior"
35
inhibiting stereotypes
-this kind of thinking is difficult and requires self-control
-people can override the stereotypes they hold
36
cooperation and prejudice reduction
-working together for a greater purpose can help people overcome group hostilities and reduce prejudice
37
the groups that influence individual behavior - social facilitation, soal loafing, deindividualization
-social facilitation: presence of others arouses us leading to increased performance in simple actions but impaired performance on complex ones
-social loafing: people work less hard in a group where individual efforts aren’t identified
-deindividualization: people sometimes lose their individuality in a group
38
conformity and obedience
-conformity is adjusting one’s behavior or thinking to go with a group standard
-obedience is complying with an outright command
39
propinquity effect
-the more we see and interact with people, the more likely they are to become our friends
40
similarity and attraction
-similarity is needed to fuel growing friendship or romantic relationships
-couples tend to look alike
41
physical attractiveness and liking
-“what is beautiful is good”
-people assume physical attractiveness is associated with other desirable traits
42
familiarity and attraction
-people prefer faces most similar to their own
43
prosocial behaviors and altruism
-prosocial behaviors benefit others and promote positive relationships
-altruism is defined as providing help in the absence of apparent rewards
44
bystander intervention effect and the four major reasons for it
-describes why people are less likely to help when others are present
-four reasons for this effect:
1.individuals feel less responsible when others are available to help
2. fear of making social mistakes in the situation
3. people are less likely to help when they are anonymous
4. we weigh the costs versus benefits of helping
45
psychodynamic theories - Freud
-they emphasize unconscious and dynamic processes
-Freud focused on unconscious forces influencing behavior
-topographical model: conscious, unconscious, preconscious
-development of sexual instincts: oral, anal, phallic, latent, genital psychosexual stages
-structural model: id, ego, superego
-defense mechanisms: strategies used by ego to cope with anxiety from id-superego conflicts
46
type and trait approaches to personality
-describe behavioral tendencies
-typologies: discrete categories for placing people
-traits are behavioral tendencies that endure over time and across situations
47
big 5/five factor model of personality
-OCEAN
-openness to experience
-conscientiousness
-extroversion
-agreeableness
-neuroticism
48
idiographic vs nomothetic approaches to personality
-ideographic: person-centered, focusing on individual uniqueness
-nomothetic: focused on traits common to groups
49
accuracy in trait judgements
-close acquaintances may be more accurate at predicting your behavior than you are
50
objective vs projective personality assessment methods
-projective: techniques where people respond to ambiguous stimuli (ex: inkblot test)
-objective:self-report questionnaires or direct observations of behavior
51
situationism and the person-situation debate
-situationism says behaviors are determined as much by situations as they are by personality traits
52
interactionism (personality vs situations)
-behavior is jointly determined by situations and underlying tendencies
53
biological basis of personality
-a person’s genetic makeup may predispose certain traits; their expression depends on developmental circumstances
-environment plays big role
54
temperaments in infancy
-infants show temperamental differences in activity level, emotionality, and sociability
-early temperament is predictive of later personality and behaviors
55
stability of personality traits
-personality traits become stable over time
-stability is lowest in early childhood and highest 50+
56
characteristic adaptations vs basic tendencies
-personality involves basic tendencies and characteristic adaptations
-the brain develops into early adulthood
57
self-concepts and self-knowledge
-our self-concepts consist of self-knowledge
-working self-concept is the the immediate experience of self
58
perceived social regard, self-esteem, and sociometer theory
-self-esteem is whether people perceive themselves as worthy or unworthy, good, or bad
-sociometer theory views self-esteem as an internal monitor of social acceptance or rejection monitoring the likelihood of social exclusion
59
mental strategies to maintain self-view
-self-evaluation maintenance: feeling threatened when close others outperform on relevant tasks, leading to distancing or changing aspirations
-social comparisons: evaluating oneself through contrast with others
-self-serving bias: taking credit for success but blaming failure on outside factors
60
cultural differences in the self
-Western(individualistic): viewing the self as fundamentally separate
-Eastern(collectivist): connected to the self
61
defining psychological disorders (3 Ds)
-behavior is labeled as disordered when its deviant, distressful, and dysfunctional
-deviant: must accompany distress
-distress: subjective suffering or unhappiness
-dysfunctional: interfering with daily life
62
medical model for psychological disorders
-views disorders as...
1. etiology: cause and development
2. diagnosis: identifying and distinguishing disorders based on symptoms
3. treatment: treating the disorder
4. prognosis: forecast about the disorder
63
DSM (diagnostic and statistical model)
-used to describe and classify psychological disorders into categories
64
assessing psychological disorders
-assessment examines mental functions and psychological health
-allows for diagnosis
-assessment tools: clinical interviews, behavioral assessment, neuropsychological assessment
65
causes psychological disorders (diathesis-stress model)
-caused by an underlying vulnerability or predisposition which can be biologic or environmental, triggered by stress
66
biological factors in psychological disorders
-genetic factors: twins and adoption studies
-prenatal problems: maternal illness, malnutrition, toxins
-environmental toxins and malnutrition using childhood/adolescence
-differences in brain anatomy
67
psychological cognitive-behavioral factors in disorders
-Freud said unconscious conflicts were a big part of disorders
-cognitive-behavioral factors highlight how distorted thoughts can produce maladaptive behaviors and emotions
68
internalizing vs externalizing disorders
-internalizing: more prevalent in women (anxiety and depression)
-externalizing: more prevalent in men (conduct disorder, substance abuse)
69
culture and psychological disorders
-culture beliefs affect treatments
-Chinese: avoid seeking help for depression, anger, or grief
-India: terms like “mental illness” replaced with “tension” or “strain"
70
the biopsychosocial approach
-biological, sociocultural, and psychological factors combine and interact to produce psychological disorders
71
anxiety disorders
-characterized by excessive fear and anxiety in the absence true danger
-chronic anxiety arouses the ANS (sweating, dry mouth, rapid pulse...)
-generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, phobias, OCD...
72
specific anxiety disorders (phobic, OCD, GAD, panic)
-phobic disorder: fear of particular objects or situations
-OCD: recurrent, intrusive, unwanted thoughts or images that increase anxiety and compelled compulsions that reduce the anxiety
-generalized anxiety disorder: persistent, uncontrollable tenseness with an inability to identify or avoid the cause of the feelings
-panic disorder: minutes-long episodes of intense dread and tightening sensations
73
components of anxiety disorders (cognitive, situational, biological)
-cognitive: focusing too much on possible danger, even when it’s not really there.
-situational: learning anxiety by seeing others act scared or anxious.
-biological: being born shy or cautious (inhibited temperament), making you more likely to feel anxious.
74
depressive disorders
-characterized by sad, empty, irritable moods interfering with daily life
-two forms: major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder
75
major depressive disorder
-signs of depression last two weeks or more
-lethargy, fatigue, worthlessness, loss of general interest
76
bipolar disorder
-alternation between depression and mania
77
explaining mood disorders
-suicide is most severe behavioral response to depression
-theories of depression explain: behavioral/cognitive changes, common causes, gender differences, self-termination of episodes, role of stressful events, and increasing prevalence
78
biological perspective on mood disorders
-mood disorders run in families
-PET scans show brain energy consumption rises and falls with manic and depressive episodes
79
social-cognitive perspective on mood disorders
-says depression arises partly from self-defeating beliefs and negative explanatory styles
-depression cycle involves negative stressful events resulting in a hopeless depressed state
80
schizophrenia
-“split mind”; split from reality
-disorganized and delusional thinking, disturbed perceptions, and inappropriate emotions and actions
-affects men and women equally but men suffer more severely
81
postive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia
-positive/adding: presence of inappropriate behaviors/thoughts, hallucinations, delusions, disorganized thinking/speech
-negative/subtracting: absence of appropriate behaviors/thoughts, losing interest, feeling out of touch, lack of emotion/expression, rigid body
82
schizophrenia - brain abnormalities, genetics, viral infection
-disease of the brain
-dopamine overactivity and enlarged ventricles
-genetics play a strong role
-viral infection (flu) during middle fetal development has been observed in some with schizophrenia
83
chronic vs acute schizophrenia
-chronic (process): slow to develop, recovery is doubtful, usually display negative symptoms
-acute (reactive): rapidly develops, recovery is better, usually show positive symptoms
84
core features of OCD
-frequent intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and compulsive actions
-anticipate catastrophe and loss of control
85
causes of OCD
-explanations include conditioning, genetics, and brain systems
-environmental factors can trigger
-streptococcal infection in some children
86
personality disorders
-inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that impair social functioning
-usually last throughout life without treatment
-usually without anxiety, depression, or delusions
-controversial
87
antisocial personality disorder
-lack of conscience for wrongdoing
-usually diagnosed in men
-sociopath/pscyhopath
-biological (reduced frontal lobe activity) and psychological reasons
88
borderline personality disorder
-disturbances in identity, affect, and impulse control
-problems with identity and impulsivity
-more common in women
-possible causes: low serotonin, trauma, abuse
89
autism
-deficits in social interaction, impaired communication, and restricted interests
-more common in males
-early symptoms often overlooked
-autistic children aware of surrounds and will throw tantrum if changed
90
causes of autism
-primarily biological disorder
-strong genetic factor
-gene mutations
-faulty wiring in many areas
-deficit in oxytocin
91
ADHD
-children are restless, impulsive, inattentive
-hard to maintain friendships
-can persist into adulthood
92
etiology of ADHD
-genetic factor but environmental also important
-impairment in connection between frontal lobes and limbic system
-frontal lobe and basal ganglia (motor behavior/impulse control)
93
categories of mental disorder treatment
-psychotherapy
-biological treatments
94
psychotherapy approaches
-based on psychological principles
-relationship between therapist and client affects outcome
-psychodynamic therapy: focuses on insight by uncovering unconscious feelings, goal is awareness of unconscious processes
-humanistic therapies: focus on whole person, emphasize personal experience and belief systems
-cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT): targets thoughts and behaviors directly, exposure is effective for phobias
95
alternative types of therapies (group, family)
-group therapy: less expensive, builds social support, offers practice of social skills and peer learning
-family therapy: family context, understanding individuals as part of larger groups that influence behavior
96
biological treatments (medications)
-psychotropic medications affect mental processes
-anti-anxiety drugs, antidepressants, antipsychotics
97
anti anxiety medications
-reduce anxiety
-addictive
-used sparingly
98
antidepressant medications
-MAO inhibitors
-tricyclics
-SSRIs
-trial and error because no single drug is most effective
-SSRIs controversial for adolescents because of increased suicidal thought risk
-Prozac combined with CBT is best outcome
99
antipsychotics
-neuroleptics
-block dopamine effects
-aren’t always effective
-have side effects like involuntary muscle twitching
-not useful for negative symptoms of schizophrenia
-second generation antipsychotics more effective: Clozapine, Risperdal, Zyprexa
100
treatments for bipolar disorder
-lithium most effective (modulates neurotransmitter levels)
-lithium can cause thirst, hand tremors, urination issues, memory problems
-lithium works better on men than depression; combined with antidepressant
101
alternative biological treatments (serious side effects)
-lobotomies: damaging frontal cortex areas, used for severe disorders, flat affect, discontinued after effective drugs developed
-electroconvulsive therapy: effective for some severe depression cases, done under anesthesia with muscle relaxants
-transcranial magnetic stimulation and deep brain stimulation: depression and OCD, TMS over left frontal regions can reduce depressive symptoms
102
pseudo therapies
-treatments widely believed effective are counterproductive and potentially dangerous
-encouraging trauma description
-police-led drug programs (DARE)
-hypnosis for painful memories
103
providers of psychological treatment
-clinical psychologist: skilled with mental illness
-psychiatrists: can prescribe psychotropic drugs
-counseling psychologists: deal with adjustment problems
-psychiatric social workers: deal with ill patients and families
-psychiatric nurses: work in hospitals/residential programs
-paraprofessionals: limited training, assist patients
104
most effective treatments for disorders
-anxiety disorders: CBT, anxiety-reducing drugs (side effects and relapse risk)
-depression: CBT, antidepressants, phototherapy for SAD, aerobic exercise, ECT, TMS
-bipolar disorder: lithium, atypical antipsychotics
-schizophrenia: pharmacological treatments, CBT
105
treatments for specific phobias
-systematic desensitization through exposure is most effective
-successful CBT alters how brain processes fear
106
treatments for panic disorder
-imipramine prevents panic attacks but not anticipatory anxiety
-CBT helps break learned associations between physical symptoms and impending doom
-CBT more long-term effects than just imipramine
107
treatments for OCD
-SSRIs and CBT
-brain imaging shows similar changes in neural activity for both treatments
-CBT better than medication long-term
108
treatments for schizophrenia
-pharmacological treatments superior
-first generation antipsychotics (chlorpromazine and haloperidol) reduced positive symptoms
-second generation antipsychotics (Clozapine, Risperdal, Zyprexa) more effective with fewer side effects, first line of defense
-CBT shows promise
109
treatments of adolescent depression
-use of medication ocntroversial
-SSRIs increase risk for sucidal thoughts in depressed children and adolescents (FDA warning required)
-CBT and Prozac combined = best outcome
110
treatments for ADHD
-most common stimulant is Ritalin which increases positive behaviors decreases negative ones in children
-Ritalin has abuse risk
-behavioral treatment: aims to reinforce positive behaviors d ignore/punish problem behaviors
-medication plus behavioral therapy is more effective than just one alone
111
treatments for autism
-autistic children benefit from structured treatment approach
-behavioral treatment: applied behavioral analysis (ABA), based on operant conditioning, very intensive (minimum 40 hours/week)
-biological treatment: SSRIs not helpful and may increase agitation, antipsychotics (like Risperdal) appear to reduce repetitive self-stimulating behaviors but have side effects like weight gain, oxytocin may improve functioning
