Psychology Final Flashcards
(427 cards)
1
Q
neurons
A
primary cell in nervous system that is responsible for sending and receiving messages throughout the body.
2
Q
cell body
A
part of the neuron that contains the nucleus that houses the cell’s genetic material.
3
Q
dendrites
A
small branches from cell body that receive messages from other cells & transmit those messages to the rest of the cell.
4
Q
axon
A
transports info in the form of electrochemical reactions from the cell body to the end of the neuron.
5
Q
neurotransmitters
A
chemicals which function as messengers allowing neurons to communicate with each other.
6
Q
glial cells
A
specialized cells of the nervous system that are involved in mounting immune responses in the brain, removing waste, and synchronizing the activity of the billions of neurons that constitute the nervous system.
7
Q
myelin
A
a fatty sheath that insulates neurons from one another , resulting in increased speed and efficiency of neural communication.
8
Q
resting potential
A
a relatively stable state in which the cell is not transmitting messages.
–> results in tension due to electrostatic gradient (in/outside of cell have diff charges) concentration gradient (more densely packed ions w/i membrane).
9
Q
action potential
A
wave of electrical activity that originates at the base of the axon and rapidly travels down its length.
10
Q
refractory period
A
brief period in which a neuron cannot fire
11
Q
synapses
A
(microscopically small) spaces that separate individual nerve cells.
12
Q
all-or-none principle
A
individual nerve cells fire at the same strength every time an action potential occurs.
13
Q
synaptic cleft
A
tiny space b/t the axon terminal and the dendrite.
14
Q
reuptake
A
process whereby neurotransmitter molecules that have been released into the synapse are reabsorbed into the axon terminals of the presynaptic neuron.
15
Q
glutamate
A
excites nervous system, memory &autonomic nervous system reactions
16
Q
GABA (gamma-amino butyric acid)
A
inhibits brain activity, lowers arousal, anxiety, and excitation, facilitates sleep.
17
Q
Acetylcholine
A
neurotransmitter responsible for movement and attention
18
Q
dopamine
A
responsible for movement, reward-seeking behaviour, cognition and attention.
19
Q
norepinephrine
A
memory, attention to new/important stimuli, regulation of sleep and mood.
20
Q
serotonin
A
regulation of sleep, mood, appetite.
21
Q
agonists
A
drugs that mimic/enhance effects of neurotransmitters.
22
Q
antagonists
A
inhibit neurotranmitter activity by blocking receptors or preventing synthesis of a nerotransmitter.
23
Q
horomones
A
chemicals secreted by the glands of the endocrine system.
24
Q
hypothalamus
A
regulates basic biological needs and motivational systems
25
pituitary gland
master gland of endocrine system that reduces hormones and sends commands about hormone production to the other glands of the endocrine system.
26
adrenal glands
(pair of endocrine glands adjacent to kidneys) releases stress hormones (ie. cortisol and epinephrine)
27
endorphin
(hormone produced by hypothalamus and pituitary gland) functions to reduce pain and induce feelings of pleasure.
28
central nervous system
consists of brain and spinal cord.
29
peripheral nervous system
division of nervous system that transmits signals b/t brain and rest of body & is divided into 2 subcomponents (somatic system and autonomic system).
30
somatic nervous system
transmits sensory info and controls movement of skeletal muscles.
31
autonomic nervous system
Regulates activity of the organs, glands, and other physiological processes.
32
sympathetic nervous system
prepares body to react and expend energy in times of stress.
| active during flight-or-flight response
33
parasympathetic nervous system
maintains body functions & conserves resources.
| active during rest and digestion
34
brain stem
consist of medulla (regulates basic functions--> breathing, heart rate, salivating, sleeping, etc.) and the pons.
35
cerebellum
involved in monitoring of movement, maintaining balance, attention and emotional responses.
36
midbrain
relay station b/t sensory and motor areas.
37
forebrain
critical to emotion, memory, thinking and reasoning.
38
basal ganglia
involved in facilitating planned movements, skill learning, and integrating sensory and movement info with the brain's reward system.
39
limbic system
integrated network involved in emotion and memory.
40
amygdala
facilitates memory formation for emotional events, mediates fear responses and recognizes interpreting emotional stimuli (ie. facial expressions).
41
hippocampus
critical for learning and memory, particularly the formation of new memories.
42
thalamus
relays sensory info to diff regions of brain.
43
cerebral cortex
involved in higher functions such as thought, language, and personality.
44
occipital lobes
involved in processes visual info
45
parietal lobes
involved in touch and bodily awareness.
46
temporal lobes
involved in hearing, language and high-level aspects of vision (ie. object/face recognition).
47
frontal lobes
higher-cognition processes (ie. planning, regulating impulses and emotion, language production, and voluntary movement).
48
corpus callosum
collection of neural fibres connecting 2 hemispheres.
49
neuroplasticity
capacity of the brain to change and rewire itself based on individual experience.
50
lesioning
technique in which researchers intentionally damage an area of the brain.
51
transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
a procedure in which an electromagnetic pulse is delivered to a targeted region of the brain.
52
structural neuroimaging
type of brain scanning that produces images of the diff structures of the brain.
53
computerized tomography (CT) scan
structural neuroimaging technique in which x-rays are sent through the brain.
54
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
structural imaging technique in which clear images of the brain are created based on how diff neural regions absorb and release energy while in the magnetic field.
Cons: not safe for certain cases (ie. car accident/potential of metal in head)
55
diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)
form of structural neuroimaging allowing researchers or medial personnel to measure white-matter pathways of the brain.
56
functional neuroimaging
types of brain scanning that provides info about which areas of the brain are active when a person performs a particular behaviour.
57
electroencephalogram (EEG)
| & list advantages and disadvantages
measures patterns of brain activity with the use of multiple electrodes attaches to scalp.
Advantage: Excellent temporal resolution (measures activity at the millisecond level); inexpensive.
Disadvantage: Poor spatial resolution (does not give a picture of individual brain structures).
58
magnetoencephalography (MEG)
| & list advantages and disadvantages
neuroimaging technique that measures the tiny magnetic feilds created by the electrical activity of nerve cells in the brain.
Advantage: Excellent temporal resolution (measures activ- ity at the millisecond level).
Disadvantage: Poor spatial resolution (does not give a picture of individual brain structures).
59
positron emission tomography (PET)
| & list advantages and disadvantages
a type of scan in which a low level of radioactive isotope is injected into the blood and its movement to regions of the brain engaged in a particular task is measured.
Advantage: Provides a picture of the whole brain (although not as clear as fMRI); allows researchers to examine activity related to specific neurotrans- mitters (e.g., dopamine).
Disadvantage: Very poor temporal resolution (takes at least 2 minutes to scan the brain, often longer); involves radioactive isotopes that limit possible participants; very expensive.
60
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
| & list advantages and disadvantages
measures brain activity by detecting the influx of oxygen-rich blood into neural areas that were just active.
Advantage: Excellent spatial resolution (clear images of brain structures).
Disadvantage: Temporal resolution is not as good as ERP or MEG (it takes approximately two seconds to scan the whole brain).
61
sensation
the process of detecting external events by sense organs and turning those stimuli into neural signals.
62
explain the steps in between sensation and perception
*refer to p.133 or screen shot for answer*
63
perception
involves attending to, organizing, and interpreting stimuli that we sense.
64
transduction
when specialized receptors transform the physical energy of the outside world into neural impulses.
65
doctrine of specific nerve energies
the hypothesis that different senses are separated in the brain.
66
sensory adaptation
the reduction of activity in sensory receptors with repeated exposure to a stimulus.
67
absolute threshold
minimum amount of energy/quantity of a stimulus required for it to be reliably detected at least 50% of the time it's presented.
68
difference threshold *still a little iffy*
the smallest difference b/t stimuli that can be reliably detected at least 50% of the time.
69
signal detection theory
states that perception of a stimulus is dependant on both sensory experience and judgement made by individual.
70
*review gestalt principles of form perception*
on page 138.
71
divided attention
paying attention to more than one stimulus/task at the same time.
72
selective attention
involves focusing on one particular event/task.
73
inattentional blindness
failure to notice clearly visible events or objects because attention is directed elsewhere.
74
hypnosis
procedure of inducing a heightened state of suggestibility (which include: -ideomotor suggestions=adopting specific actions
- challenge suggestions= refrained actions
- cognitive-perceptual suggestions= altered perceptions/remembering/forgetting)
75
dissociation theory
explains hypnosis is a unique state in which consciousness is divided into two parts: observer and hidden observer.
76
social-cognitive theory
explains hypnosis by emphasizing the degree to which beliefs and expectations contribute to increased suggestibility.
77
meditation
any procedure that involves a shift in the consciousness to a state in which an individual is highly focused, aware, and in control of mental processes.
78
What are focused attention meditation and open monitoring meditation?
Focused attention= accepting thoughts in a non-judgemental manner and bring focus back to their meditation.
Open monitoring= paying attention to the moment-by-moment sensations they feel.
79
brain death
a condition in which the brain, specifically the brain stem, does not function.
80
coma
a state marked by complete loss of consciousness.
81
persistent vegitate state
a state of minimal to no consciousness in which the patient's eyes may be open, and the individual will develop sleep-wake cycles w/o clear signs of consciousness.
82
minimally conscious state (MCS)
a disordered state of consciousness marked by the ability to show some behaviours that suggest at least partial consciousness (either consistent/inconsistent).
83
locked-in syndrome
a disorder in which the patient is aware and awake but due to an inability to move appears unconscious.
84
tolerance
when the repeated use of a drug results in a need for a higher does to get the intended effects.
85
physical dependence
the need to take a drug to ward off unpleasant physical withdrawal symptoms.
86
psychological depedence
occurs when addition develops without any signs of physical symptoms of withdrawal.
87
*review table 5.3*
on page 212
88
psychoactive drugs
substances that effect emotion, behaviour, thinking and perception.
89
stimulants
category of drugs that speed up nervous system, typically enhancing wakefulness and alertness.
90
ecstasy
drug classically defined as a stimulant but also has hallucinogenic effects.
91
hallucinogenic drugs
substances that produce perceptual distortions.
92
marijuana
drug that produces a stimulant, hallucinogenic and relaxing effects.
93
opiates
reduce pain and induce extremely intense feelings of euphoria. (ie. morphine and heroin).
94
sedative drugs
depress activity of nervous system.
95
learning
a process in which behaviour or knowledge changes as a result of an experience.
96
Explain Pavlov's dogs.
"Pavlov began conducting experiments in which he first presented a sound from a metronome, a device that pro- duces ticking sounds at set intervals, and then presented meat powder to the dogs. After pairing the sound with the food several times, Pavlov discovered that the metronome by itself could elicit salivation".
97
classical conditioning
learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus elicits a response that was originally caused by another stimulus.
98
unconditioned stimulus
stimulus that elicits a reflexive response without learning.
99
unconditioned response
a reflexive, unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus.
100
conditioned stimulus
a once neutral stimulus that later elicits a conditioned response b/c it has a history of being paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
101
conditioned response
the learned response that occurs as a result of the conditioned stimulus.
102
acquisition
the initial phase of learning in which a response is established.
103
extinction (classical conditioning)
the loss or weakening of a conditioned response as a result of the unconditioned stimulus no longer being paired with the conditioned stimulus.
104
spontaneous recovery
reoccurrence of a previously extinguished conditioned response, typically after some time has passed since extinction.
105
generalization
process in which a response that originally occurs to a specific stimulus also occurs to different, though similar, stimuli.
106
discrimination
occurs when an organism learns to respond to one original stimulus but not to new stimuli that may be new to original stimulus.
107
conditioned emotional responses
consist of emotional and physiological responses that develop to a specific object or situation.
108
Explain Little Albert experiment.
Watson and Rayner coupled a loud, sudden noise with the appearance of a white mouse (that Albert wasn't afraid of prior). Albert’s fear of white rats was generalized to other furry, white objects. Shown here, Watson tests Albert’s reaction to a Santa Claus mask.
109
preparedness
the biological predisposition to rapidly learn a response to a particular class of stimuli.
110
conditioned taste adversion
the acquired dislike/disgust of a food/drink b/c it is paired with illness.
111
operant conditioning
type of learning in which behaviour is influenced by consequences.
112
reinforcment
process in which an event/reward that follows a response increases the likelihood of that response occurring again.
113
reinforcer
a stimulus that is dependant on a response, and that increases the probability of that response occurring again.
114
punishment
a process that decreases the future probability of a response.
115
punisher
a stimulus that is dependant on a response and that results in a decrease in behaviour.
116
positive reinforcement
strengthening of a response after potential reinforcers such as praise, money, or nourishment follow that behaviour.
117
negative reinforcement
involved the strengthening of a behaviour b/c it removes or diminishes a stimulus.
118
avoidance learning
type of negative reinforcement that removes the possibility that a stimulus will occur. (paying bills on time to avoid late fees).
119
escape learning
occurs if a response removes a stimulus that is already present. (ie. covering ears during load noise)
120
positive punishment
process in which a behaviour decreases in frequency b/c it was followed by a unpleasant stimulus.
121
negative punishment
a behaviour decreases b/c it removes/diminishes a particular stimulus.
122
primary reinforcers
consists of reinforcing stimuli that satify our basic motivational needs (needs that effect individual's ability to survive).
123
secondary reinforcers
stimuli that acquire their reinforcing effects only after we learn that they have value.
124
discriminative stimulus
cue or event that indicates that a response, if made, will be reinforced.
125
extinction (operant conditioning)
weakening of an operant response when reinforcement is no longer available.
126
shaping
procedure in which a specific operant response is created by reinforcing successive approximations of that response. (ie. toilet training)
127
schedules of reinforcement
rules that determine when reinforcement is available.
128
continuous reinforcement
every response made results in reinforcement
129
partial (intermittent) reinforcement
only a certain number of responses are rewarded, or a certain amount of time must pass before reinforcement is available.
130
fixed-ratio schedule
reinforcement is delivered after a specific number of responses have been completed.
131
variable-ratio schedule
the number of responses required to receive reinforcement varies according to an average.
132
fixed-interval schedule
reinforces the first response occurring after a set of time passes.
133
variable-interval shedule
the first response is reinforced following a variable amount of time.
134
partial reinforcement
refers to a phenomenon in which organisms that have been conditioned under partial reinforcement resist extinction longer than those conditioned under continuous reinforcement.
135
latent learning
learning that is not immediately expressed by a response until the organism is reinforced for doing so.
136
observational learning
involves changes in behaviour and knowledge that result from watching others.
137
imitation
recreating someone's motor behaviour or expression, often to complete a goal.
138
stores
retain specific info in memory w/o using it for any specific purpose.
139
control processes
shift info from one memory store to another.
140
explain the process of a stimulus being passed into LTM
http: //revisionforpsy3.wikispaces.com/file/view/
| psych. png/235577924/psych.png
141
attention
selects info to be passed into STM.
142
encoding
process of storing info in LTM (*note: not all STM goes through this process).
143
retrieval
bring info from LTM back into STM (when you become aware of existing memories)
144
sensory memory
memory store that accurately holds perceptual info for a brief amount of time.
145
iconic memory
visual memory - usually lasts 1/2 - 1 sec. (shorter than echoic)
146
echoic memory
Auditory memory - usually lasts about 5 secs. (longer than iconic)
147
George Sperling experiment
Involves having a grid of letters flashed on the screen very briefly with or w/o a tone. Within the tone study group, the tone seemed to elongate memory.
148
change blindness
when diff b/t stimuli isn't apparent to subject.
149
STM
a memory store with limited capacity and duration (ie. 7 (+/-2) tool bench).
150
LTM
holds info for extended periods of time, sometimes permanently.
151
chunking
organizing smaller units of info into larger, more meaningful units. (ie. chess players & increased STM).
152
serial position effect
generally, people will recall the first few items (primacy effect) and the last few items (latency effect) in a list but not the ones in b/t.
153
proactive interferance
process in which first info learned occupied memory, leaving fewer resources left for new info.
154
retroactive interferance
most recently learned info overshadows older recently learned memories that haven't made it to LTM yet.
155
rehearsal
repeating info until you don't need to remember it anymore
156
explain the working memory model
a model of shot-term remembering that includes a combo of memory components that can temporarily store small amounts of info for a short period of time.
*look up image of model*
157
phonological loop
storage component of working memory that relies on rehearsal & that stores info as sounds.
158
visuospacial effect
storage component of working memory that maintains visual images and spacial layouts.
159
episodic buffer
storage component of working memory that combines images & sounds from other 2 components into coherent, story-like episodes.
160
central executive
control centre of working memory, it coordinates attention & exchange of info among the 3 storage components.
161
declarative (explicit) memories
memories we are continuously aware of & that can be verbalized, including facts about the world & one's personal experiences.
162
nondeclarative memories
include actions/behaviours you can remember & perform w/o awareness.
163
episodic memory
declarative memories for personal experiences that seem to be organized around "episodes" & are recalled from a 1st person perspective.
164
semantic memories
declarative memories that include facts about the world.
165
procedural memories
patterns of muscle movements (ie. you never forget how to ride a bike).
166
priming
states that previous exposure to stimulus will affect individual's response to it/something similar.
167
long-term potentiation (LTP)
demonstrated that there is an enduring increase in connectivity & transmission of neural signals b/t nerve cells that fire together.
168
consolidation
process of turning STM into LTM (hippocampus is critical for consolidation)
169
amnesia
a profound loss of at least one type of memory
170
anterograde amnesia
an inability to form new memories for events occurring after a brain injury.
171
retrograde amnesia
condition in which memory for events preceding trauma or injury are lost.
172
explain the case of H.M.
H.M. was cured of epilepsy after removing his medial temporal lobes however he was left with anterograde amnesia. This helped us determine that the medial temporal lobes (or damage to hippocampus, surrounding cortex and amygdala) is involved in consolidating memories, enabling info from STM to enter and remain in LTM.
173
storage
refers to the time and manner info is retained b/t encoding & retrieval.
174
maintenance rehearsal
prolonging exposure to info by repeating it.
175
elaborative rehearsal
prolonging exposure to info by thinking about it's meaning.
176
shallow processing
processing superficial properties of a stimulus (ie. spelling of a word).
177
deep processing
processing of a stimuli's meaning/function (better retention and retrieval).
178
encoding specificity principle
retrieval is most effective when it occurs in the same context as encoding (ie. scuba example- context effects recall).
179
state dependant memory
retrieval is more effective when internal state matches encoding state (drunk Doldy example).
180
weapon focus
focus on weapon decreases peripheral accuracy (however damage to the amygdala eliminates this effect).
181
flashbulb memory
an extremely detailed memory about an event & the conditions surrounding how one learned about the event.
182
method of loci
a mnemonic that connects words to be remembered with locations along a familiar path.
183
acronyms
pronounceable words whose letters reperesent the initials of an important phase or set out items.
184
first-letter technique
uses the 1st letters of a set of items to spell out words that form a sentence.
185
dual coding
occurs when info is stored in more than one form.
186
testing effect
finding that practice tests can improve exam performance even w/o any additional studying.
187
schemas
organized clusters of memories that consolidate one's knowledge about events, objects & ideas.
- Affect memory in 2 ways:
- ->organization (fits our memories) and distinctiveness (doesn't fit our memories).
188
constructive memory
process in which we first recall a generalized schema & then add specific details.
189
false memory
remembering an event incorrectly or even events that didn't occur.
190
misinformation effect
```
when info occurring after the event becomes part of memory for that event.
6 steps to reforming procedures:
- employ blind procedures
- use appropriate instructions
- compose line up carefully
- use sequential line ups
- require confident statements
- record the procedures
```
191
imagination inflation
the increased confidence in a false memory of an event repeated imagination of event.
192
guided imagery
technique used to help people recover details of event they are unable to recall.
193
Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM)
participants study list of highly related words - semantic associates.
194
recovered memory
recovery of a traumatic event that is suddenly recovered after blocking the memory of that event for a long period of time. (There is some controversy as to whether or not this is valid or not.)
195
problem solving
a means of accomplishing a goal when the solution isn't clear.
196
algorithms
problem-solving strategies based on a series of rules.
197
heuristics
problem-solving strategies that stem from prior experiences & provide an educated guess as to what is the most likely situation.
198
mental set
a cognitive obstacle that occurs when an individual attempts to apply a routine solution to what is actually a new type of problem.
199
functional fixedness
which occurs when an individual identifies an object/technique that could potentially solve a problem but cannot think beyond it's intended purpose.
200
representativeness heuristic
making judgements of likelihood based on how well an example represents a specific category.
201
availability heuristic
estimating the frequency of an event based on how easily examples of it come to mind.
202
anchoring effect
occurs when an individual attempts to solve a problem involving numbers & uses previous knowledge to keep the response w/i a limited range. (ie. bargaining)
203
belief perseverance
when an individual believes that they have the correct answer/solution to a problem they will tend to only accept evidence that will confirm those beliefs.
204
confirmation bias
occurs when an individual looks for information that might confirm their beliefs instead of evidence that might disconfirm them.
205
satificers
individuals that seek to make decisions that are satisfactory/"good enough"
206
maximizers
individuals who attempt to evaluate every option for every option every choice until they find the perfect fit.
207
cognitive development
study of changes in memory, thought & reasoning processes that occur throughout the lifespan. (developed by Piaget, interested in diff ways of thinking & reasoning develop).
208
assimilation
a conservative process, in which people fit new info into the belief systems they already possess.
209
accomodation
a creative process, in which people modify their belief structures based on experience.
210
sensorimotor stage
(0-2yrs) infants thinking about & exploration of the world are based on immediate sensory & motor experiences.
211
object permanence
ability to understand that an object still exist even if they can't be perceived.
212
preoperational state
(2-7yrs) language development, using symbols, pretend play & mastering concept of conservation.
213
conservation
knowledge that a quantity/amount of an object isn't the same as the physical arrangement & appearance of that object.
214
concrete operational stage
(7-11yrs) when children develop skills in logical thinking and manipulating numbers.
215
formal operational stage
(11yrs-adulthood) involves the development of advanced cognitive processes such as hypothetical thinking and abstract reasoning.
216
core knowledge hypothesis
proposes that some infants have inborn abilities for understanding some key aspects of their environment.
217
habituation
refers to the decrease in responding with repeated exposure to an event.
218
dishabituation
an increase of responsiveness with presentation of new stimulus.
219
zone of proximal development
states that development is ideal when children attempt skills/activities that are just beyond what they can do alone, but they have guidance from adults who are attentive to their progress.
220
scaffolding
highly attentive approach to teaching in which the teacher matches guidance to learner's needs.
221
attachment
the enduring emotional bond formed b/t individuals. (ie. Harlow's monkeys)
222
explain the strange situation experiment & the 3 broad patterns of behaviour
procedure in which infant attachment is measured by observing infants behave when exposed to diff experiences that involve anxiety & comfort.
- secure attachement
- insecure attachment
- -> anxious/resistant
- -> avoidant
- disorganized/unstable
223
self-awareness
the ability to recognize one's individuality.
224
egocentric
children only recognize their perspective (usu. in pre-operational phase).
225
theory of mind
the ability to recognize the thoughts, beliefs & expectations of others & to understand that these may differ from one's own experiences.
226
false-belief task
testing child to see if they can perceive what another person perceives.
227
attachment behavioural system
which is focused on meeting our own needs for security.
228
caregiving behavioural system
which is focused on meeting the needs of others
229
introgection
the internalization of the conditional regard for significant others.
230
inductive discipline
involves explaining the consequences of a child's actions on other people, activating empathy for other feelings.
231
Primary & secondary sex traits
1 - changes in body that are part of reproduction
| 2 - changes in body that aren't part of reproduction
232
menarche/spermarche
onset of menstruation/first ejaculation of sperm
233
delay gratification
putting off immediate temptations in order to focus on longer term goals.
234
reframing
learning to look at an experience through a diff frame (ie. failure=opportunity to learn).
235
Kohlberg's stages of moral reasoning
- Preconventional morality= characterized with self-interest in seeking reward or avoiding punishment.
- Conventional morality= regard to social conventions & rules for appropriate moral behaviour.
- Postconventional morality= Considers rules and laws as relative.
236
identity
a clear sense of who you are, what types of people you "belong" with and what roles you should play in society.
237
List pros and cons of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
PROS= highlights that human motivation extends to a number of diff areas rather than just physiological needs.
CONS=
- fulfilling one need b/f moving onto another is simplistic & unrealistic.
- the hierarchy appear to be biased toward individualistic (Western) culture.
238
need to belong (affiliation motivation)
motivation to maintain relationships that involve pleasant feelings such as warmth, affection, appreciation & mutual concern for each person's well-being.
239
passionate love
associated with physical & emotional longing for other person.
240
compassionate love
related to tenderness & to the affection we feel when our lives are intertwined with another person.
241
achievement motivation
the drive to perform at high levels & to accomplish significant goals.
242
approach goal
an enjoyable & pleasant incentive that a person is drawn toward, such a praise, financial reward, or a feeling of satisfaction.
243
what are the factors influencing commitment?
- initial strength of attraction
- number of barriers to leaving the relationship
- availability of alternatives
244
oxytocin
hormone related to feelings of trust & desire to be close to someone.
245
avoidance goal
an attempt to avoid an unpleasant outcome (ie. shame or embarrassment).
246
self-efficacy
an individual's confidence that they can plan & execute a course of action to solve a problem.
247
self-determination theory
an individual's ability to achieve their goals & attain psychological well-being is influenced by the degree to which they are in control of behaviours necessary to achieve those goals.
248
extrinsic motivation
motivation geared towards gaining rewards/public recognition
249
amotivational
feeling of having little to no motivation to perform a behaviour.
250
intrinsic motivation
process of being internally motivated to perform behaviours & overcome challenges.
251
over-justification effect
decrease in internal motivation due to dependancy on reward.
252
framing effect
states that when the correct course of action isn't obvious the diff phrasing of the question/problem can produce a diff result.
253
emotion
composed of:
1) subjective thought/experience
2) accompanying patterns of neural activity and physical arousal
3) an observable behavioural expression
254
amygdala
medial portion of temporal lobes and fired where stimuli is perceived as emotionally arousing & is especially sensitive to fear-relevant images.
255
James-Lange theory of emotion
suggests that our physiological reactions to stimuli precede the emotional experience of fear.
256
Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
suggests that the brain interprets a situation & generates subjective emotional feelings & these representations in the brain trigger responses in the body.
257
facial feedback hypothesis
suggests our emotional expressions can influence our subjective emotional states.
258
two factor theory
holds that the pattern of physical arousal and cognitive labels we attach to them form the basis of our emotional experiences.
259
emotional dialects
variations across cultures in how common emotions are expressed.
260
display rules
refer to the unwritten expectations we have regarding when it's appropriate to show a certain emotion.
261
explain B= f(PxE)
behaviour is a function of the person and the envionment
262
mimicry
taking on (for ourselves) the behaviours, emotional displays & facial expressions of others.
263
chameleon effect
people mimic others non-conciously, automatically coping others' behaviours w/o realizing it.
264
social norms
(usually unwritten) guidelines for how to behave in social contexts.
265
social loafing & it's influences
when people put less effort into working on a task with other people.
Influences of social norms include:
- low efficacy beliefs
- believing that one's contributions aren't important to the group
- not caring about the group's outcome
- feeling like others aren't trying very hard
266
social facilitation
when one's performance is affected by the presence of others.
267
groupthink
refers to stifling of diversity that occurs w/i individuals & instead having to focus on others & maintaining harmony in the group.
268
normative influence
social pressure to conform to a group's beliefs to be accepted & avoid rejection.
269
informational influence
when people internalize beliefs and values of group as if they were their own.
270
bystander effect
presence of others decreases likelihood of helping behaviour.
271
diffusion of responsibility
responsibility for taking action is spread across more than one person, thus making no single individual feel personally responsible.
272
pluralistic ignorance
occurs when there's a disjunction b/t private beliefs of individuals & the public behaviour they display to others.
273
social roles
more specific sets of expectations for how someone in a specific position should behave.
274
Explain Stanford Prison study and Milgram's study.
-
275
stress
physiological reaction that occurs when perceived demands exceed existing resources to meet them.
276
appraisal
cognitive act of assessing and evaluating the potential threat & demands of an event.
277
primary appraisal
questioning/deciding if situation is stressful.
278
secondary appraisal
determining how to cope with stress/treat.
279
fight-or-flight response
a set of physiological changes that occur in response to psychological/physical treats.
280
general adaptation syndrome (GAS)
- Alarm = recognition of threat & physiological reactions that accompany it
- Resistance = using physical/,mental resources to respond to stressor in an appropriate way.
- Exhaustion = when stressful experience depletes physical resources & physiological stress response decreases.
281
hypothalamic-pituatary-adrenal (HPA) axis
a neural & endocrine circuit that provides communication b/t nervous system& the endocrine system.
282
corticotrophin-releasing factor
what hypothalamus releases when stress is perceived & also stimulates the pituitary gland to release adrenocoriticotrophic hormone.
283
adrenocoriticotrophic hormone
stimulates the release of cortisol
284
cortisol
hormones secreted by adrenal cortex that prepares the body to respond to stressful circumstances.
285
oxytocin
stress-sensitive hormone that is typically associated with maternal bonding & social relationships.
286
psychoneuroimmunology
study of relationship b/t immune system & nervous system & nervous system functioning.
287
vasopressin
a stress-reducing hormone released by hypothalamus & pituitary gland.
288
coronary heart disease
condition in which plaques from BV that supply heart with blood and oxygen resulting in restricted blood flow.
289
type A & B personality
```
A= people who tend to be impatient & worry about time, are easily angered, competitive and highly motivated.
B= people who are more laid back & characterized by a patient, easygoing & relaxed disposition.
```
290
coping
refers to the process used to manage demands, stress & conflict.
291
broaden-&-built theory
states that positive emotions help an individual broaden their thought processes to build new resources.
292
optimism
tendency to have favourable, constructive view on situation & expect positive outcomes.
293
pessimists
negative perception and outcome of life.
294
pessimistic explanatory style
internally base negative events & believe it is a constant, stable quality.
295
list off the big 5 personality traits/five factor model
- Openness to experience = aware of emotions & intellectually curious.
- Conscientiousness = disciplined & focused on what is expected of them.
- Extraversion = outgoing and social individuals.
- Agreeableness = gets along & seeks help from others.
- Neuroticism = increased negative affectivity
296
resilience
ability to effectively recover from illness/adversity.
297
post-traumatic growth
capacity to grow & experience long-term positive effects in response to negative events.
298
biofeedback
therapeutic technique that measures autonomic responses, provides feedback thereby increasing awareness of bodily responses.
299
mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR)
goal is to help coping strategies & relaxation by increasing link b/t the body & mind.
300
intergrated mind-body training (IMBT)
involves relaxing, posture correction, & increased awareness of body.
301
brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)
protein in nervous system that promotes survival, growth, & formation of new synapses.
302
learned helplessness
an acquired suppression of avoidance/escape behaviour in response to unpleasant, uncontrollable circumstances.
303
compensatory control
psychological strategies people use to preserve a sense of non-random order when personal control is compromised.
304
*DON'T FORGET TO MAKE CUE CARDS FOR MODULES 13.2 & 13.3!*
-
305
negative affectivity
the tendency to respond to problems with a pattern of anxiety, hostility, anger, guilt, or nervousness. Thereby increasing difficulty of finding appropriate coping strategy.
306
explicit processes
correspond roughly to "conscious" thought, deliberative, effortful, very fast, operate largely outside of intentional control.
*effects implicit processes.
Ie. Nancy is negative --> affects our perception of Nancy's positivity and negativity.
307
implicit processes
comprise our "unconscious" thought; they are intuitive, automatic, effortless, very fast, and operate largely outside of our intentional control.
308
dual process model
models of behaviour that account for implicit and explicit processes.
309
person perception
process by which individuals categorize and form judgements about others.
310
self-fulfilling prophecies
your beliefs affect your actions, which affect other people's actions, which then reinforce your beliefs.
311
false consensus effect
tendency to project our self concept onto the social world. (ie. I like sports, therefore everyone likes sports).
312
naive realism
tendency to assume that the way we see things is the way they are.
313
self serving biases
biased ways of processing self relevant info to enhance a positive self evaluation.
314
internal attribution
when the observer explains the actions of another in terms of some innate quality of that person. (ie. guy cuts you off=jerk).
315
external attribution
when observer explains the actions of another as a result of a situation (he cut me off cause of a pot hole in the road).
316
fundamental attribution error (FAE)
tendency to over emphasize internal attribution and under emphasize external attribution.
317
Ingroup bias
as positive biases toward the self get extended to include one's ingroups, people become motivated to see their ingroups are superior to their outgroups
318
Minimal group paradigm
how easily people will form social categories
319
stereotype
a cognitive structure, a set of beliefs about the characteristics that are held by members of a specific social group; these beliefs function as schemas, serving to guide how we process info about social world.
320
prejudice
an affective, emotionally driven process, including negative attitudes toward and critical judgements of other groups. Prejudice itself is an emotional process, but it in turn is reinforced by negative stereotypes.
321
discriminiation
behaviour that disfavours or disadvantages members of a certain social group in some way.
322
contact hypothesis
social contact b/t people in diff social groups is extremely important to overcome prejudice.
323
Ingroups/outgroups
- Ingroups= people with whom we affiliate ourselves with
| - Outgoups= people with whom, we don't affiliate ourselves with.
324
4 common approaches to change the public's behaviour
1) Technological - focuses on making desired behaviour as easy as possible through technologies and structures that influence the person.
2) Legal - focuses on policy change; get laws right and people will behave in desired ways.
3) Economic - focuses on financial incentives and penalties; usu through taxes and pricing.
4) Raising awareness - focuses on info; get info right and educate everyone.
325
elaboration likelihood model
audiences are sufficiently motivated to pay attention and carefully process the situation and be persuaded by the facts of the argument or the substance
326
Central route (in reference to the elaboration likelihood model )
all about substance & how compelling argument is
327
Peripheral route (in reference to the elaboration likelihood model )
all about style, not substance
328
construal theory
describes how info affects us differently depending on psychological distance from info.
329
identifiable victim effect
people are more powerfully moved by story of a single suffering person than by information about a whole group of people.
330
experimental system
operates more implicitly, quickly & intuitively & is predominantly emotional (ie. personal experiences, images, stories, etc.)
331
analytic system
operates more at explicit level of consciousness, is slower and more methodical & uses logic and discursive thinking to try and understand reality (ie. reasoning sing language).
332
value appeals
audiences more likely to listen to a message that is framed in a way that seems relevant to their values.
333
preach
one-sided appeal where you only argue for your own perspective.
334
flip-flopper
2-sided appeal acknowledging diff appeals.
335
attitude inoculation
strategy for strengthening attitudes and making them more resistant to change by first exposing people to a weak counter-argument & then refuting the argument.
336
processing fluency
ease with which info is processed.
337
authority
use of experts/authority figures can enhance the impact of message being delievered
338
social validation
use the behaviour of others as a guide to inform us what to do.
339
reciprocity
social norm in which people must repay others for a deed.
340
door-in-the-face technique
involves asking something relatively big, then following with a request for something really small making you feel obligated to meet them part way.
341
foot-in-the-door technique
involves making a simple request followed by a more substantial request.
342
cognitive dissonance theory
when we hold inconsistent beliefs resulting in dissonance and are therefore motivated to reduce tension in any way we can.
343
personality
pattern of thinking, feeling and behaving that is unique to each individual & remains relatively consistent over time & situations.
344
idiographic approach
creating detailed descriptions of a specific person's unique personality characteristics.
345
personality trait
a person's habitual patterns of thinking, feeling and behaving.
346
nomothetic approach
examine personality in large groups of people with the aim of making generalizations about personality structure.
347
factor analysis
used to group items that people respond to similarly.
348
HEXACO model of personality
6 factor theory that is very similar to FFM but adds additional factor: Honesty-humility.
349
dark triad
refers to 3 traits that descirbe a person who is socially destructive, aggressive, dishonest and likely to commit harm in general.
- machiavellanism= manipulative, deceitful & self interested.
- psychopathy= low empathy, prefer conflict.
- narcissism = egotistical & "full of themselves"
350
right-wing authoritarianism
highly problematic set of personality characteristics that involve:
1) obeying orders & deferring to the established authorities in a society.
2) supporting aggression against those who dissent/differ from established social order
3) believing strongly in maintaining the existing social order.
351
state
temporary physical/psychological engagement that influences behaviour.
352
reciprocal determinism
behaviour internal/external factors interact to determine one another & that our personalities are abased on interactions among these aspects.
353
conscious mind
current awareness (containing everything you are aware of right now).
354
unconscious mind
vast and powerful but inaccessible part of your unconscious, operating w/o your conscious endorsement or will to influence& guide your behaviours.
355
id, super ego and ego
```
id= collection of basic biological drives, including those directed toward sex and aggression.
superego= moral compass and values
ego= decision maker, reconciling b/t superego and id.
```
356
defence mechanisms
conscious strategies the ego uses to reduce/avoid anxiety.
- Repression= keeping distressing info out of conscious awareness by burying it in the unconscious.
- Denial= refusing to acknowledge unpleasant info, particularily
- Rationalization= attempting to hide one's true motives
357
psychosocial development (5 stages)
* fixation= becoming preoccupied with obtaining the pleasure associated with a particular stage.
1) oral stage
2) anal stage
3) phallic stage
4) latency stage
5) genital stage
358
projective tests
personality tests in which ambiguous images are presented to an individual to elicit responses that reflect unconscious desires/conflicts.
- Rorschach inkblot test
- Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
Critiques= low reliability and validity
359
Analytical psychology
focuses on role of unconscious archetypes in personality development.
360
personal unconscious
a vast repository of experiences & patterns that were absorbed during the entire experimental unfolding of the persons life.
361
collective unconscious
separate, non-personal realm of the unconscious that holds the collective memories & mythologies of human kind, stretching deep into our ancestral past.
362
achetypes
images & symbols that reflect common "truths" held across cultures, such as universal life experiences or types of people. (ie. Hero vs. Shadow)
363
inferiority complex
struggle that many people have with inferiority, which stem from experiences of helplessness & powerlessness during childhood.
364
person-centred perspective
people are basically good & given the right environment their personality will develop fully & normally.
365
self-actualization
drive to grow and fulfill one's potential.
366
asylums
residential facilities for the mentally ill.
367
medical model
sees psychological conditions through the same lens as Western medicine tends to see physical conditions (a set of symptoms, causes and outcomes with treatments aimed at changing physiological processes in order to alleviate symptoms.
368
3 traits of maladaptive behaviour (referring to psychological disorders)
1) whether it causes distress to cultural framework
2) impairs day-to-day functioning
3) increased risk of injury/harm to oneself/others
369
Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM)
standardized manual to aid in the diagnosis of disorders.
370
*5 axis system?*
-
371
Explain Rosenhan study
Had healthy patients complain to doctors of delusion and were sent to a mental institution. Despite displaying normal behaviours doctors believed patients to be mentally unstable due to diagnosis and therefore misinterpreted and misconstrued behaviours.
372
mental disorder defense
claims that the defendant was in such an extreme, abnormal state of mind when committing the crime that they couldn't discern that the actions were legally/morally wrong. (M'Naghten rule)
373
personality disorder
particularly unusual patterns of behaviour (relative to cultural context) that are maladaptive, distressing to oneself/others & resistant to change.
374
DSM-5 Clusters
- Cluster A= odd/eccentric behaviour (ie. paranoid or schizoid PD)
- Cluster B= dramatic, emotional and erratic behaviour (ie. antisocial/ borderline PD)
- Cluster C= anxious, fearful and inhibited behaviour (ie. avoidant/ obsessive-compulsive PD)
375
*do we need to know specifics of diff disorders?*
-
376
comorbidity
presence of 2 disorders simultaneously.
377
dissociative disorder
a category of mental disorders characterized by a split b/t conscious awareness from feeling, cognition, memory and identity.
378
Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)/ Multiple personality disorder
person experiences a split identity such that they feel diff aspects of themselves as though they were separated from each other.
379
anxiety disorders
category of disorders involving fear/nervousness that is excessive, irrational and maladaptive.
380
Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)
involves frequently elevated levels of anxiety, generally from the normal challenges & stresses of everyday life
381
Panic disorder
an anxiety disorder marked by occasional episodes of sudden, very intense fear.
382
*agoraphobia
resulting from an intense panic attack in public. Downward cycle, resulting in isolation and avoidance of public settings.
383
social anxiety disorder
very strong fear of being judged by others/being embarrassed/humiliated in public.
384
exposure
repeatedly and in stages exposed to the object of their fear so that they can work past their emotional reactions.
385
obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
plagued by unwanted, inappropriate & persistent thoughts (obsessions) & tend to engage in repetitive, almost ritualistic behaviours (compulsions).
386
major depression
disorder marked by prolonged periods of sadness, feelings of worthlessness & hopelessness, social withdrawal & cognitive & physical sluggishness.
387
bipolar disorder
characterized by extreme highs and lows in mood, motivation and energy.
388
Pessimistic explanatory style:
- Internalizing
- Stabilizing
- Globalizing
- Internalizing=blaming oneself
- Stabilizing= blaming persistence of situation
- Globalizing= expanding blaming to overall life
389
List barriers of seeking mental health assistance
expense, availability, stigmas surrounding mental illness, gender roles.
390
List pros and cons of "involuntary treatment" for mental health
```
Pros= improves mental health, decreases cost of mental illness on society, increases effectiveness of treatment, safer society.
Cons= unethical (strips freedom), forced medication, biased (races/low SES).
```
391
clinical psychologists
have received PhD level of training & are able to formally diagnose & treat mental health issues ranging from the everyday & mild to the chronic and severe.
392
counselling psychologist
mental health professionals who typically work with people needing help with more common problems (ie. stress, coping & mild forms of anxiety disorders) rather than severe mental disorders.
393
psychiatrists
medical doctors who specialize in mental health & who are allowed to diagnose & treat mental disorders through prescribing medications.
394
deinstitutionalization
mental health patients were released back into their communities, generally after having their symptoms alleviated through medication.
395
residential treatment centres
housing facilities in which residents receive psychological therapy & life skills training with the explicit goal of helping residents become re-integrated into society as well as they can.
396
community psychology
an area of psychology that focuses on identifying how individuals' mental health is influenced by the neighbourhood, economics & community resources, social groups & other community-based variables.
397
insight therapies
general term referring to therapy that involves dialogue b/t client & therapist for the purposes of gaining awareness & understanding of psychological problems & conflicts.
398
psychodynamic therapists
forms of insight therapy that emphasize the need to discover & resolve unconscious conflicts.
399
4 factors that help access the unconciousness
1) free association=patients don't censor thoughts
2) dream analysis= observing dreams and what they could mean symbolically
3) resistance= keeps info out consciousness
4) transference= relive and direct emotional experience toward therapist.
400
phenomenological approach
therapist looks at client's feelings and thoughts as they unfold rather than looking for unconscious motives or duelling in the past.
401
client-centred therapy
focuses on individuals' abilities to solve their own problems and reach their full potential with the encouragement of the therapist.
402
behavioural therapies
address problem behaviours and the environmental factors that trigger them, as directly as possible.
403
systemic desensitization
gradual exposure to a feared stimulus/situation is coupled with relaxation training.
404
aversive conditioning
behavioural technique that involves replacing a positive response to a stimulus with a negative response (typically by using punishment).
405
cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT)
form of therapy that consists of procedures such as cognitive restructuring, stress
406
negative explanatory style
tendency to make internal, stable & global attributions for negative events.
407
decentring
occurs when one is able to "step back" from one's normal consciousness & observe oneself more objectively as an observer.
408
mindfulness-based cognitive therapy
involves combining mindfulness meditation with standard cognitive-behavioural therapy tools.
*Helpful with depression, bipolar, GAD & suicidal thoughts.
409
systems approach
orientation that encourages therapists to see if individual's systems are being influenced by different interacting systems (ie. family).
410
psychopharmacotherapy
the use of drugs to attempt to reduce client's symptoms.
411
psychotropic drugs
medications designed to alter psychological functioning
412
blood-brain barrier
a network of tightly packed calls that only allow specific types of substances to move from the bloodstream to the brain in order to protect delicate brain cells against harmful infections & other substances.
413
antidepressant drugs
medications designed to elevate mood & reduce other symptoms of depression.
414
monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)
deactivate monoamine oxidase (MAO) which breaks down serotonin, dopamine & norepinephrine (key neurotransmitters) at the synaptic cleft of nerve cells.
415
tricyclic antidepressants
block re-uptake of serotonin & norepinephrine.
416
selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors (SSRIs)
increase activity of serotonin at postsynaptic cell by slowing the rate of re-uptake of serotonin molecules into the presynaptic cell.
417
mood stabilizers
drugs used to prevent/decreasing severity of mood swings experienced with people diagnosed with bipolar.
418
lithium
one of the first mood stabilizers to be preserved regularly in psychiatry.
419
anti-anxiety drugs
affect the activity of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) (--> which decreases neural activity)
420
antipsychotic drugs
used to treat symptoms of psychosis, including delusions, hallucinations & severely disturbed/disorganized thought.
421
tardive dyskinesia
a movement disorder involving involuntary movement & facial tics.
422
atypical antipsychotics
claim that these drugs are less likely to produce extrapyramidal side effects including movement disorders (most common in first-generation antipsychotics are prescribed).
423
frontal lobotomy
procedure involving surgically removing regions of the cortex.
424
leucotomy
the surgical destruction of brain tissues in the prefrontal cortex.
425
electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
involves passing an electrical current through the brain in order to induce a temporary seizure.
426
transcranial magnetic simulation (TMs)
therapeutic technique in which a focal area of the brain is exposed to a powerful magnetic field.
427
deep brain stimulation
technique that involves electrically stimulating specific regions of the brain which provides immediate effects.
