Psychology Paper 2 Flashcards

Question

Dispositional factors

Answer 1

Personality Morality

Answer 2

Internal locus of control enables individuals to be less influenced by crowd behaviour as they’re more likely to follow their personal norms than the social norms created by others around People who have an internal LOC: Take responsibility for their actions Do not blame others/circumstances for what happens to them Are less likely to be swayed by group pressure People who have an external LOC: Do not take responsibility for their actions Are more inclined to blame others/circumstances for what happens to them Are more likely to go along with the group Evaluation- Not all research has shown that personality matters participants were tested to see if they would report researchers for conducting an unethical study (whistleblowing) Participants who were willing to speak had similar scores on a personality test to those who didn’t speak out.

Answer 3

“morals” are our ideas of right and wrong People with a strong sense of right and wrong helps resist pressure from group norms. In Milgram’s study a professor of religion was able to resist the pressure of “what everyone else was doing” due to his strong sense of moral responsibility. Evaluation- supported by historical evidence of individuals who stood up to crowd behaviour in Nazi Germany, Sophia Scholl was found guilty of circulating anti-Nazi literature, she resisted to group pressure and stood up for what she believed in shows that some people are willing to sacrifice their life for a principle and good of others.

Answer 4

We learn through developing schemas. Thought first, language after The child's understanding of the concept comes first and then they learn how to express their understanding of it Young children can have language without understanding but will not be able to use it effectively (parrot). Children only understand words when they have reached the correct stage of development and are ready. -at the sensorimotor stage (0-2 years) babies are learning what their bodies can do, and this includes making vocal sounds. - at the preoperational stage (2-7 years) children’s language is developing. children are able to voice their internal thoughts but there is limited use of language for communicating with other people. -at the concrete operational stage (7-11 years) use language for actual, concrete things. -at the formal operational stage, ( 11+) language can be used to talk about abstract, theoretical ideas. Piaget believed that, while all children move through these stages, some people do not get to the formal operational stage.

Answer 5

A strength is that early language is not random. When children start talking they use two-word phrases like ‘Mummy sock’, which shows they can see how objects relate to each other. This suggests that children only start to use language when they have some understanding of it. Very little evidence to support Piaget’s theory. Not all children progress in the same way and at the same rate: some children’s language development will be affected by, for example, environmental factors such as poverty, nutrition, culture, education A weakness is the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis challenges Piaget. It states that language comes before thought as people need a word or phrase for an object in order to think about it. This suggests that Piaget may have been wrong. Another weakness is that schema cannot be scientifically measured. It is very difficult to know if schema exist as we cannot directly measure them. This shows that Piaget’s theory of language and thought is not based on solid scientific evidence.

Answer 6

Strong version: language determines thought People from different cultures will think differently based on their cultural experiences if there are no words for an object or idea then you can’t think about it language you learn–>determines what you think about Inuits have many different words for snow, shows that language and culture are linked, Inuits can perceive snow in many ways which is not available to English speakers Weak version: language influences thought The language that someone speaks influences their thoughts, ideas, opinions etc Words help to “carve up” the world, you can still imagine things with no words for them. English speakers can still imagine/think about the different type of snow such as “soft snow on the ground” Although there aren’t any specific words for it, we can still imagine what it looks like Which is better? The weaker version Info is easily described=better remembered If the words we have for a concept or idea are limited, our ability to notice or recall that idea will be limited.

Answer 7

A weakness is that differences between cultures may have been exaggerated by Boas. There are only two words for snow in Inuit culture and actually English has other words for different types of snow. This shows that the differences aren’t that great and challenges the conclusion that language may determine thought. There is research to support the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis – such as studies on the variation in recognition of colours and the variation in recall of events Another weakness is that having more words for snow doesn’t mean the words came first. The Inuit language may have more words for snow because there is always lots of snow. This suggests that language develops because of the way we perceive our environment, which supports Piaget’s view that thinking influences language. A strength is that the hypothesis explains the link between language and intelligence. Bernstein suggested that working-class children will always fall behind in school because their use of the restricted code will have a negative effect on their ability to think. This shows that language influences a particular type of thinking (intelligence).

Answer 8

Native Americans: The Hopi: Hopi language doesn’t distinguish between past, present and future. Therefore, this influences the way they think about time. Evaluation: A weakness is that only one individual was studied. Others have argued that the way the Hopi language describes the passing of time is not very different from European language. This suggests that Whorf’s conclusions lacked a firm basis in fact. Language affects recall of events Carmichael et al. gave two groups of participants the same pictures, but each group heard different descriptions. When they were asked to draw them, the pictures drawn reflected the labels they had heard. This suggests that language influences memory. Evaluation: A weakness is that the materials used were ambiguous. In everyday life we would be less influenced by labels. So we may not be able to generalise the results to everyday life.

Answer 9

Native Americans: The Zuni Brown and Lenneberg found that the Zuni people have only one word for shades of yellow and orange and had difficulty recognising and recalling these colours compared to English speakers. This suggests that their lack of words for those two colours affected their ability to distinguish between them. Evaluation: A weakness with research on different cultures is that there are issues with the interpretation of participants’ responses. The language barrier could have affected how well the Zuni people communicated their understanding of colour to the researchers. This causes the research to lack validity. Language affects recall of colour Roberson et al. found that the Berinmo people of New Guinea had difficulty recalling and distinguishing between a variety of colours as they only have five words for different colours in their own language. This is evidence for the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis as it suggested that specific cognitive processes are influenced by language. Evaluation: A weakness is that some researchers have found the opposite. The Dani people have only two words for colour but were still as good as English-speaking participants on a colour-matching task (Heider and Olivier). This suggests that their lack of colour words did not influence their ability to think about colour.

Answer 10

Aim- To describe the dances performed by honeybees to explain how they communicate information to each other. Method- Von Frisch put a food source close to the hive (within about 10–20 metres), as well as one further away (up to 300 metres). He made over 6000 observations of honeybees over 20 years. Results- Round dance: Moving in a circle to indicate food is less than 100 metres away. Waggle dance: Moving in a figure of eight, waggling its abdomen in the ‘middle’ of the eight, with this straight line pointing at the source of pollen. Speed indicates distance. 60% of bees went to food sources at the distance indicated by the dances. Conclusion- Bees use a sophisticated form of animal communication. The signalling system has evolutionary value as it helps their survival.

Answer 11

A strength is that Von Frisch’s work made an important contribution to science. People knew that bees danced but had no understanding of the meaning of the movements. This shows how valuable his research was. Other researchers have replicated Von Frisch’s study and found the same results. This suggests that the results are trustworthy and that the original study is reliable. A weakness is that the importance of sound was overlooked. When bees performed dances in silence, other bees would not then go on and investigate food sources (Esch). This shows that sound-based signals also play a part in directing other bees – something that Von Frisch did not consider. Another weakness is that bees do not always respond to the waggle dance. Bees do not use the information from the waggle dance to fly to nectar if it was placed in a boat in the middle of a lake (Gould). This shows that Von Frisch’s account was incomplete. The use of controlled conditions means that the data is likely to be reliable and consistent over time

Answer 12

Survival Reproduction Territory Food

Answer 13

Survival Vervet monkeys use sounds to warn of danger (alarm calls). A specific sound warns other monkeys close by. Rabbits use visual signals. They lift their tail high, pin ears back and leap forward to communicate danger to other rabbits. These signals increase the survival of members of the signaller’s species.

Answer 14

Animals use mating displays. Peacocks stretch their feathers like an umbrella to attract females. Mating displays communicate genetic fitness through brightly coloured and plentiful feathers.

Answer 15

To mark, maintain, protect/defend, or increase territory. To establish dominance over a rival/social group/area

Answer 16

Animals use signals to show location of food. Ants leave a pheromone trail to communicate the location of a food source.

Answer 17

Plan ahead and discuss future events Creativity Single versus multiple channels

Answer 18

Humans can use their language to plan ahead and discuss future events (displacement). In contrast, animal communication tends to focus on things that are physically present in the environment, such as food sources or predators. Therefore, displacement is not a part of animal communication in the same way as it is part of human communication.

Answer 19

Animal communication involves a closed system as the gestures, sounds and movements only refer to very specific events. Human language is an open system as words can be combined together in an infinite number of ways. To be creative and to try out new sounds, new blends of words, different accents, and different forms (e.g. poetry, song, email, texting)

Answer 20

Human language can be expressed using a whole range of different channels such as spoken, written or sign language and all of the different types of social media. This is not a feature of animal communication which tends to use single channels such as pheromones.

Answer 21

Regulating flow of conversation Kendon found that speakers looked away when they were about to speak and gave prolonged eye contact when about to finish. Shows eye contact encourages turn-taking in conversation. Signalling attraction Conway et al. found that people who use eye contact are judged as more attractive even with a negative facial expression. Expressing emotion Adams and Kleck found that participants judged emotions of joy and anger as more intense when shown a picture of someone gazing straight at them as opposed to gazing away. They judged emotions of fear and sadness as more intense when the gaze in the picture was averted. Thus eye contact can be used to express a range of emotions in different ways

Answer 22

A strength is that studies can explain an important feature of autism. People with autism have difficulty communicating with others because they often do not use eye contact. Knowing the importance of eye contact means that people with autism could be taught these skills. A weakness is the use of rating scales to make judgements. Studies in this area rely on people rating their views of ‘attractiveness’ and ‘intensity of emotion’, and these are open to bias and interpretation. This suggests that studies of eye contact may produce biased evidence. There are some good applications for the use of eye contact in the real world, eye contact is an important part of interpersonal communication Another weakness is that studies of eye contact involve quite artificial tasks. In Kendon’s study, participants were asked to get to know someone as part of the experiment. This means the results may lack validity as they do not reflect what would happen in everyday life

Answer 23

Open and closed posture Closed posture = crossing your arms and/or legs, communicates rejection or disagreement. Open posture = arms and legs not crossed, communicates approval and acceptance. McGinley et al. found that participants were more likely to change their opinions in line with a female confederate’s if she had adopted an open posture when discussing her views, as opposed to a closed posture. Postural echo Copying each other’s body position. Tanner and Chartrand found that participants had more positive feelings towards a new drink if the researcher had used postural echo during the interview, than if there was no postural echo. Touch ‘Touching’ in a social interaction includes high fives, slapping, putting hand on a shoulder. Fisher et al. found that students handed books by a librarian who touched them on the hand were more positive about the librarian than those who were not touched.

Answer 24

A strength is that the research can be applied to real-world situations. People who are trying to create a good relationship with others should use an open posture, postural echo and touch. This shows that the research can be useful in everyday life. A weakness is that the studies are not always well controlled. For example, in the library study (Fisher et al.) there may have been other reasons why the participants liked or disliked the librarian aside from the presence or absence of touch. This is a problem for the validity of the results. Being able to ‘read’ another person’s body language is a very useful skill for life: it can help someone to detect when another person is lying to them, is in love with them or is trying to manipulate them Another weakness is that research in this area raises ethical issues. For example, field experiments on postural echo and touch involved a lack of informed consent and it is unclear whether participants were debriefed afterwards. It involves a person’s private space being intruded upon plus some people may dislike being touched as it may trigger a specific trauma This could affect the trust people have in psychologists.

Answer 25

Cultural differences Sommer found that English people’s personal space is 1–1.5 metres whereas Arabs is much less. Collett found that Englishmen who stood closer and gave more eye contact were better liked by Arabs. Gender differences Men prefer a larger social distance when interacting with men than women talking to other women. Fisher and Byrne found that women felt more uncomfortable when a confederate invaded their personal space from the side whereas with men it was from the front. Status differences Status is someone’s rank within society or the workplace. Zahn found that people with a similar status maintain a closer personal space than those with unequal status.

Answer 26

A strength is that this research has proved useful in everyday life. For example, doctors could use knowledge about cultural differences. Therefore it has a positive impact on the real world. A weakness is that research into personal space only looks at one factor at a time. In reality, several factors may be affecting personal space distances at the same time such as culture, gender and status. This makes research in this area too simplistic. Another weakness is studies may use unrepresentative samples. It is difficult to use a sample of people in a personal space experiment that reflects all people within a culture, or all males and all females. This means we should be cautious in generalising the results to everyone. Research into personal space tends to use the self-report method which - in the form of a questionnaire - can be replicated in high numbers to check for reliability One of the downsides of using the self-report method to gather data is that participants may succumb to social desirability bias and not answer the questions with complete honesty Research on personal space may be overly simplistic as it does not take into account an array of factors which may also contribute to distances between people e.g. personality, upbringing, religion etc.

Answer 27

Darwin and evolution Darwin proposed the theory of natural selection: The genes for any behaviour that improves an animal’s chances of survival and reproduction are more likely to be passed to the next generation. Therefore, the genes have been naturally selected. Some of Darwin's key ideas are natural selection and survival of the fittest. He said that organisms that make the best changes in order to fit their situation and environment, are the ones most likely to survive and reproduce. An example would be when people expose their teeth when they have an angry facial expression. Originally, humans may have used biting as a form of self-defence. So just like many animals, they may have exposed their teeth as a way of saying 'back off. Opening your eyes wide indicates surprise because it has evolved from animal behaviour – animals under threat would open their eyes wide to see an escape route to avoid danger. Wrinkling the nose and/or gagging could prevent a human from ingesting toxic substances (the gag reflex is an automatic physical response which prevents potentially dangerous substances from being swallowed) Wrinkling the nose, gagging, baring teeth to show aggression, scanning the environment: all of these behaviours are known as serviceable habits - they aid survival in the animal world Darwin also suggested that some non-verbal communication is caused by our nervous system. Examples include dilated pupils and an open mouth when we are frightened. They are some of the effects of the fight or flight response and could help our survival. Pupil dilation increases how much we can see – allowing us to find the best way to escape and an open mouth increases how much oxygen we can take in – allowing us to run away much faster.

Answer 28

A strength is that the theory is supported by research. Ekman et al. identified six primary emotions: surprise, fear, disgust, anger, happiness and sadness that are found in all people. If a behaviour is universal this suggests that it is in our genes and therefore Ekman’s evidence supports Darwin’s evolutionary theory. Another strength is that there is further support from studies of newborn babies. Babies are born with the ability to smile or maintain eye contact which suggests that, because these behaviours are present at birth, they are innate. If these behaviours are innate this supports the idea that they have been selected by evolution to help the child’s survival. A weakness is that Darwin’s theory struggles to explain cultural differences in non-verbal communication. Personal space and gestures are expressed in different ways in different cultures which suggests we are not biologically the same. This suggests the theory doesn’t explain all non-verbal communication. Medical evidence backs up the idea that our nervous system causes certain actions, such as pupil dilation. Not all non-verbal behaviour helps humans to survive or reproduce – for example the use of gestures.

Answer 29

Neonate research Neonate = a newborn baby. If a non-verbal behaviour is shown at birth it is likely to be innate. Social releasers These are non-verbal behaviours like smiling which make others want to look after babies (Bowlby). This is adaptive because it means that a young baby will be looked after and the genes passed on. Facial expressions Rosenstein and Oster found that young babies’ faces showed disgust with novel foods like citric acid (found in lemons). This suggests such facial expressions as a way of communicating emotions are innate. Sensory deprived An animal or human without a sensory ability, such as hearing or sight. If they show the same non-verbal behaviour as people with normal hearing or vision this suggests the behaviours are innate. Thompson found similarity in blind children and children with normal vision in terms of facial expressions such as surprise Babies are incapable of faking their behaviour which means that research using young infants is valid It is overly simplistic to claim that ALL non-verbal behaviours are innate as the influence of the environment (e.g. upbringing, culture, peers) must also play a role here Young babies and children cannot give their consent (due to a lack of understanding) to be part of research so using them as participants brings with it some ethical concerns

Answer 30

Cross-cultural research Comparing behaviours between cultural groups. If behaviours are different this suggests that they are learned rather than innate. Contact versus non-contact cultures One cultural difference in non-verbal behaviours is in terms of personal space. People from contact cultures (the Mediterranean and Latin America) are comfortable with smaller personal space. People from non-contact cultures (the UK and the US) maintain a larger distance between themselves and others. Some Asian cultures find overt displays of emotion and extreme facial expressions embarrassing and upsetting whereas some cultures (e.g. southern European, Latino, Arabic) may show exaggerated forms of expression, particularly when communicating grief or sadness Gestures Pointing one’s index finger is acceptable in Western culture to emphasise what is being said but offensive in Hindu culture . Hands in pockets is disrespectful in Turkey Explaining cultural differences Social learning theory can explain cultural differences (observing and imitating others). People observe what other people in their culture are doing (e.g. personal space) and copy those behaviours. Real-world experience and interaction with different cultures e.g. gained via overseas travel demonstrates the validity of the idea that non-verbal behaviour is learned The influence of culture is not necessarily a given: some people may not adopt the full range of non-verbal behaviours present in their culture due to, for example, dislike/rejection of some aspects of their culture, a lack of awareness of some behaviours, a desire to align themselves with another culture

Answer 31

Aim- To find out if there is a difference in how emoticons are understood by people in the East (Japan) and the West (America). Method- 95 students from Japan and 118 students from America – an independent groups design. Six emoticons were shown with different combinations of eyes and mouths (sad, happy or neutral). Participants rated them for happiness using a 9-point scale. Results- The Japanese gave higher ratings to faces with happy eyes than the Americans, even when the mouth was sad. Americans gave higher ratings when mouths were happy even when the eyes were sad. Conclusion- This suggests that cultural groups interpret facial expressions differently which may be due to cultural norms and expectations.

Answer 32

A weakness is that emoticons may not represent human faces. Emoticons do not include those tell-tale lines on people’s faces which give us further information of how to interpret their eyes and mouth. This means the results of the study may lack relevance to everyday life. Another weakness is the study only investigated two types of emotion. In everyday life, faces express a whole range of emotions – fear, surprise, disgust, etc. Therefore the study does not give us insight into how the full range of emotional expressions are interpreted by people of different cultures. Another weakness is that rating scales may not be the best method of measurement. Emotions are very complex and rating scales reduce emotion to a single score. Therefore Yuki et al. may have measured the interpretation of emotions in too simple a way. Not representative, eg the samples in both conditions were students – no younger or older people

Answer 33

Responds to information in the environment. Controls working of different organs and cells including the brain.

Answer 34

Nervous system Central nervous system- brain and spinal cord Peripheral nervous system- autonomic, somatic nervous system Autonomic- parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems.

Answer 35

-made up of the brain and spinal cord. -The brain is divided into two halves (hemispheres). -Right hemisphere controls the left side of the body and the left hemisphere controls the right side. -The brain is the centre of conscious awareness and where all decision-making takes place. -The brain stem governs some autonomic functions (e.g. heart beat) and reflex responses.

Answer 36

-Around the outside. -Receives messages from the CNS and sends messages to it. -Messages sent via neurons. -PNS is divided into autonomic nervous systems, and somatic nervous sytem.

Answer 37

Autonomic nervous system ( ANS ) -Automatic (involuntary) functions. -For example, breathing, heart rate, digestion and the body’s response to stress. Somatic nervous system ( SNS ) -voluntary -Voluntary control of our muscles plus reflex responses. -Takes in information from sensory organs, such as the eyes and the skin.

Answer 38

Maintenance of a constant internal environment.

Answer 39

Sympathetic nervous system: -physiological arousal (breathing rate gets faster, heart beats rapidly, sweating) prepares the body for the fight (confront) or flight( energy to run) response. Parasympathetic nervous system: -returns the body to it’s normal resting state after the threat or stress has passed -rest and digest.

Answer 40

Hypothalamus detects threat. Hormone adrenaline, is released in the bloodstream -Physiological change occurs (fight or flight response) -Heart rate and breathing rate increases. -When thats passed, parasympathetic returns the body back to normal

Answer 41

Sympathetic Increases heart rate Increases breathing rate Stops saliva production Dilates pupils Stops digestion Contracts rectum Parasympathetic Decreases heart rate Decreases breathing rate Stimulates saliva production Constricts pupils Stimulates digestion Relaxes rectum

Answer 42

nerve cells, which send electrical signals to communicate

Answer 43

Sensory -Carries messages from PNS to CNS. -Short axons, long dendrites. Relay - Connect sensory and motor neurons, also relay neurons -Short dendrites, short axons Motor -Carry messages from CNS to Effectors. Short dendrites, Long axons.

Answer 44

Soma--> contains nuclus, contains genetic material. Dendrites--> carry electrical signals to cell body Axons--> carry electrical signals away from cell body. Myelin sheath--> fatty layer which covers and protects axons, speeds up electrical signals. Node of Ranvier--> Makes signals go faster as it 'jumps' each gap. Terminal buttons--> Communicate to next neuron.

Answer 45

Synapse transmittion is a process by which 1 neuron communicates with another. Synaptic cleft--> space between the neurons. End of one neuron--> Presynaptic Start of another neuron--> Postsynaptic Signals sent between neurons are send by neurotransmitters.

Answer 46

Electrical signs (action potential) stimulates vessicles that contain neurotransmitter. They then bind down and move to synaptic cleft. Once transmitter crosses, it attaches to next neuron at postsynaptic. They are then tuned back into electrical impluse. Neurotransmitter that was left in gap , is broken down by enzymes and absorbed by presynaptic to be used again. Post synaptic effect are either inhibitory or excitatory effect. If they are enough excitatory signals compared to inhibitory signals, summation occurs, this will cause neuron to fire and an electrical impulse will be created.

Answer 47

Event--> Arousal--> Interpretation--> Emotion Event- threat to environment, activates hypothalamus. Arousal- release of adrenaline, faster heart rate Interpret- Brain interprets these changes Emotion- sense of fear, sadness. Physical first, then emotion If no physiological change in body, no emotion Our interpretation of physiological changes causes the emotions we experience.

Answer 48

Real life examples of emotions after arousal. Example, a person falls down the stairs, which leads to emotion of embarrassment , and leads to them avoiding public places. This shows that emotional responses such as fear are a result of physiological arousal like increased heart rate. - The James-Lange theory is not based on any research findings from experiments. James and Lange relied on correlational research and clinical findings, such as observations by doctors, to develop their claims. This may mean that their theory lacks validity. A weakness is that the theory is challenged by the Cannon–Bard theory. We experience some emotions (e.g. embarrassment) at the same time as physiological arousal and not one after the other. Eg we feel embarrassed (emotion) as we blush (physical) Therefore this theory can explain emotional situations that the James–Lange theory cannot. Too simple, This 2 factor theory explains how we interpret the same physical state very differently depending on situation and social cues. eg sweating when you are in beach because of sun.

Answer 49

Synaptic connections/ neural pathways in the brain become stronger the more they are used. Brain is constantly changing and developing, meaning brain is plastic. Brain can adapt, change structure and form new connections as we learn, this happens anytime, any age. Engram--> leaves a trace in brain, which is from learning, like sparker. However, trace is left in brain which is permanent if practiced and rehearsed. Group of neurons known as cell assemblies, fire together. The more this happens, the more stronger the synaptic connections/ neural pathways are, this leads to group of neurons becoming more efficient. They change physically and grow so that they can manage the new learning more efficiently. "Cells that fire together, wire together" If a neuron repeatedly excites another neuron, neural growth occurs and synaptic knob comes larger. When certain neurons act together frequently enough, they become established as a connection and form neural pathways.

Answer 50

His theory is scientific, objective, as no bias, and is supported by research and neuroscience. Explains learning in terms of brain function so we can understand behaviour. Increases validity. A strength of Hebb’s theory is it can be applied to education. He found that rats raised in stimulating settings were better able to find their way through mazes as adults. This could be applied to education by creating more stimulating environments to encourage learning. Theory is reductionist. This is because it explains complex area of learning by referring to activity in brain. Does not explain learning fully, should include other factors involved in learning.

Answer 51

Aim- Penfield aimed to describe the psychological responses patients gave when parts of their brain were electrically stimulated. Method- Patients with epilepsy lay on an operating table and were conscious. Only a local anesthetic was used. Penfield stimulated different areas of the brain using the Montreal procedure, and recorded patients' responses. (He also treated their epilepsy.) Over more than 30 years Penfield studied more than 1000 cases. Results If stimulation was applied to the visual area- Patient saw colours, shadows and even balloons floating into the sky. Applied to the motor and sensory areas- Patients made different physical actions or they believed that someone had touched them. Applied to the temporal lobe - Experiences : Patients described things they had experienced in the past but they reported these experiences as if they were re-living the events. Interpretations : Patients reported hallucinations - when someone sees, hears smells and tastes or feels things that don’t exist outside their mind. Conclusion- Penfield concluded that his findings were evidence for the idea of localisation of function. And that the temporal lobe must have a strong role in memories. The interpretive cortex is the area that stores information on feelings.

Answer 52

Strength was he used very precise method of studying the brain. Detailed investigations of brain by stimulating particular areas and patients could report what they experienced. He was also able to stimulate exact same area again to see if same memory was activated. Useful in enabling a ‘map’ of brain function to be created, benefited neuroscience. One weakness is that the ppts in study made up an unusual sample. The participants in his study of interpretive cortex were all patients with severe epilepsy. It may be that the experience of epilepsy had changed the structure and function of brains. this means findings could not be generalised to non epileptic brains. There are various ethical issues to consider when carrying out a case study. For example, because the participants are so unique, it may be possible to identify them from any reports of the results and this would break their confidentiality. One weakness in 1958 when he conduced this study, technology did not exist to investigate normal brain and make comparisons Case studies are a good way of studying unusual behaviour/phenomena. In doing so, they often help our understanding of what is ‘normal’.

Answer 53

4 lobes of cerebral cortex (covers brain) Frontal lobe- contains motor area -Front of the brain -Controls thinking, planning and movement. -Contains one language area – Broca’s area. Temporal lobe- auditory/ language area -Behind the frontal lobe and below occipital lobe. -Auditory area related to speech and hearing. -Includes part of the language area – Wernicke's area. Parietal lobe- contains somatosensory area -Behind the frontal lobe, with somatosensory area at the front. -Sensations are processed, e.g. touch. Occipital lobe- contains visual area -Back of the brain. -Controls vision.

Answer 54

Localisation- Specific brain areas do particular jobs. Motor area- -controls movement on opposite side of body. -If damage to left motor area, problems with movement on right side of body Somatosensory area- -The most sensitive body parts take up most ‘space’ e.g. sensations for face and hands use over half of the neurons available. -Damage to this area means less ability to feel pain and temperature change. Visual area- -Each eye sends information to the visual areas on each side of the brain. -Visual field is area seen by the eye. -Right visual field of each eye sends information to the visual area in the left hemisphere, and vice versa. -Damage to the visual area in the left hemisphere may cause blindness in the right visual field of both eyes. Auditory area- -Damage to this area can lead to deaf Language area- -Areas controlling language are in the left hemisphere only. -This means damage to left will affect language. -Damage to Broca’s area ( in frontal lobe) leads to difficulty remembering and forming words. -Damage to Wernicke’s area leads to difficulty understanding and producing language.

Answer 55

Cognitive psychology- study of mental processes of mind like memory and perception Neuroscience is the study of brain function and behavior Together they are called cognitive neuroscience- the scientific study if the influence of brain structures on mental processes. One aim of cognitive neuroscience is to create a detailed ‘map’ of the brain. The purpose of this map is to identify which aspects of behavior and cognition are related to which area of the brain. This is based on the idea that brain function is localised example linked to certain parts of the brain.

Answer 56

We see how different structures within the brain control different behaviours. The amygdala is an area located deep within the temporal lobe, it processes emotion eg fear. Frontal lobe includes motor area which controls and coordinates movement.

Answer 57

Cognition referes to mental processes of the mind, memory and perception. Different types of LTM is located in different areas of brain

Answer 58

Low serotonin affects thinking is linked to low mood and suicidal thoughts (cognition) which causes the person to stop going out (behavior)

Answer 59

Neurological damage is damage to neurons in brain which may be permanent or temporary different areas in brain perform different functions. The way in which neurological damage affects behavior will depend on which area of the brain has been damaged.

Answer 60

A stroke occurs when the blood supply to your brain stops because of blockage or bleed in brain. without blood your brain cells will damage and parts of brain may die. Such damage may be permanent The brain has 2 identical halves, if one side is damaged, then using therapy the other side of brain can be trained over time to adopt function (neural plasticity )

Answer 61

Damage to the motor area can lead to the person struggling with fine and complex movements. Damage to the left hemisphere affects the right side of the body, vice versa

Answer 62

Brain damage can lead to 'aphasia' - an inability to understand and use language. Broca's aphasia leads to problems producing speech. Wernicke's aphasia affects understanding of speech.

Answer 63

Large doughnut-shaped scanner rotates around the person to take lots of X-rays of the brain. Images are taken from different angles and are combined to build up a detailed picture. Strengths- usefulness for revealing abnormal structures in brain like tumors etc. Quality of images by CT scan is higher than x rays Weakness- require more radiation than x rays meaning more radiation exposure patient receives this means CT scans cannot be used often. more complex do not give information about activity of live brain, just still images

Answer 64

Patient is injected with a radioactive substance like glucose called radiotracer, when this substance is taken up by the brain, the brain areas that are most active will absorb more of it. The active brain areas will appear on computer screen as different colors. Red and yellow represent more active than blue areas Strengths- can show the brain in action, which is useful in psychological research. Can show localisation of function. Weaknesses- extremely expensive and not easily available for research results are not easy to interpret Ethical issues with injection of glucose, meaning the technique can only be used a few times

Answer 65

Measure changes in blood oxygen levels in the brain, rather than tracking a radiotracer. When brain area is active it uses more oxygen so more blood is in active area, this is called hemodynamic response, produce 3D images on computer screen. Strengths- Important information about which areas of the brain are being used at any one time. Does not use radiation so its safe method of studying the brain Extremely clear and can show brain activity to the millimeter. weakness- Expensive to use. Only effective if the person whose brain is being investigated stays perfectly still and this may be a problem for children. 5 second time lag between brain activity and image on screen, this can cause problems when trying to interpret information received.

Answer 66

Aim- he wanted to see whether thinking about episodic memories produced blood flow in different parts of the brain than thinking about semantic memories. Methods- Involved 6 volunteers, including himself and wife. each ppt was injected with a small amount of radioactive gold Once this substance was taken up by the brain and the active brain areas would show up on a PET scan using gamma rays. Each ppt performed 8 trials: 4 episodic and 8 semantic in a random order. Repeated measures design as the same ppts were taking part in all of the tasks. Episodic tasks- personal experiences Semantic tasks- historical facts from memory On a signal, the ppt would begin thinking about the topic, whilst blood flow in their brain was monitored on the scan. Results- Tulving found clear differences in blood flow patterns for 3 out of the 6 ppts. When ppts thought about semantic memories- there was greater concentration or blood flow to back of the brain. Frontal and temporal When pots thought about episodic memories, there was greater concentration of blood flow to front of the brain. Parietal and occipital Conclusions episodic semantic memories are separate forms of LTM, meaning these types of memory are located in different parts of the brain. Supports the idea that memory has a biological basis and that different types of memory are localized in different areas of the brain.

Answer 67

A strength of the study is that it produced objective and scientic evidence. An issue with lab studies is that ppts will work aim of study and change behavior, and results will be different however in Tulvings study the ppts were thinking of things there were told to think about, this means it would be impossible for them to fake or influence the brain scan His study produced objective and unbiased evidence. One weakness is that the sample of ppts were restricted. There were only 6 ppts in experiment, including tulving. The differences in blood flow in episoic and semantic memories were seen in only 3 ppts. this means the data is inconclusive, this means because of few people, there was same pattern of blood flow Difficult to generalise results to all people. A weakness is that episodic and semantic memories are often very similar. Memories for personal events also contain facts and knowledge about the world so it is difficult to work out which type of memory is being studied. This may explain why the evidence from Tulving’s study was inconclusive. - It is not possible to make sure that the participants only thought about what they were asked to, so we can't be sure the scan was really measuring a specific type of memory. -The study was ethical as all the participants were volunteers and had given their informed consent.

Answer 68

It’s estimated that by 2030 two million more adults will have mental health problems than in 2013. More women are treated than men and the gap is widening. Those in lower income households are more likely to have mental health problems (e.g. 27% of men) compared to higher income households (e.g. 15% of men). Greater social isolation due to city living increases loneliness and is linked to increased depression, eg old people -Cultural variations in beliefs about mental health problems In Western society, hearing voices is a symptom of mental health problems such as schizophrenia, but it is a positive experience in India and Africa. Some syndromes are culture-bound, occurring only in certain cultures, e.g. eating disorders were relatively rare for many years outside the Western world. The signs and symptoms relating to mental illness are subjective, e.g. behaviours like difficulty sleeping and problems socialising are hard to measure. Signs and symptoms to mental illness are focused on illness instead of health. Physical illness , are based on our physical health, body temp, skin condition. We detect illness when symptoms are absent. Johada suggested it might be more helpful to list the characteristics of mental health than illness, then look at absence of these signs. Johada identified 6 categories, as characteristics of being mentally healthy: Self attitude, personal growth, integration ( being cope with stressful situations), autonomy (independent), accurate perception of reality, mastery of environment (adjust to new situations and solve new problems) Labelling a person as ‘mentally ill’ or a ‘lunatic’ develops expectations about their behaviour. These expectations act as a stigma and can be harmful eg it may affect how others treat the person, or difficulty in finding job. The preferred term is mental health, which has less stigma and is focused on health than illness and suggests they can get better , whereas lunatic is permanent

Answer 69

Individual effects -The way that mental health problems affect the person experiencing them. Damage to relationships : -Affect the ability to talk to others, which affects relationships because communication is important, as they focus on themselves, and find it difficult to understand others feeling, as successful communication requires understanding of other person as its a 2 way process. -Are isolating as people avoid being with others as they feel bad about themselves and fear judgement. The other person may misunderstand they don't like them so this damages relationship. Difficultly controlling them and looking after them Difficulties coping with day-to-day life -Mental health problems are linked to difficulties with getting dressed, socialising, cleaning the house, etc. -This could cause a patient little distress but it may be distressing to others, as they have to look after them. Don’t go to jobs, get fired. Negative impact on physical well-being -If you are anxious or stressed the body produces cortisol. not exercising -This hormone prevents the immune system functioning properly, this means that psychological problems make physical illness is more likely. Weightloss

Answer 70

Social effects---- The way that mental health problems affect others in society. Need for more social care -Taxes are used to fund social care, offering people who are in need the basic necessities, i.e. food, warmth, human company. If more people need mental health care, people have to pay more on taxes. -Social care includes helping people to learn how to care for themselves and teaches new social and work skills. We should all feel more personally responsible. Increased crime rates -There is an increased risk of violence in people with mental health problems (up to four times greater). People may also have low standard of living and isolation, this could be a cause for their behaviour -However this may be explained by co-occurring problems, e.g. substance abuse. Implications for the economy -The McCrone report estimates that mental health care costs £22 billion a year. -Cheaper drug treatments should be researched more than expensive counselling -Increase in dementia, a mental health problem. This will cost the government an increasing amount of money as older people are living for longer and more care is required for them.

Answer 71

Depression - Being excessively sad over a long period of time. low moods and low energy levels. considered abnormal. emotion Sadness - normal emotional state. Clinical depression - medical condition, diagnosed disorder. Unipolar -experience one emotional state Bipolar- -changes between 2 moods- depression and mania Mania is an exaggerated state of intense well-being.

Answer 72

Biological explanations focus on physical influences (nature). Psychological explanations focus on other factors, like the influence of others or our thinking (nurture).

Answer 73

common neurotransmitter is serotonin - it has been linked to many behaviours including depression. Serotonin transmits a message from 1 neuron to another. if alot of serotonin is in synaptic cleft, postsynaptic neuron is stimulated, leads to improved mood. If levels of serotonin is low in synapse, meaning message isnt transmitted, meaning low mood. Reasons for low serotonin level - genetic (nature)- poor ability to produce serotonin. - environmental ( nurture )- if your diet is low in tryptophan, then it wont produce much serotonin. typtophan comes from protein and carbohydrates, which may explain why comfort foods like pizza improves your mood and make you feel good.

Answer 74

Diagnosis of unipolar depression requires 2 of these symptoms, so they can then give medication, which may increase levels of serotonin, making them happier. Diagnosis of depression and other mental disorder are made via use of a medical document called ICD-10. This is provided by the world health organisation. Key symptoms -Low mood. -Loss of interest and pleasure. -Reduced energy levels. Other symptoms -Changes in sleep patterns. -Changes in appetite levels. -Decrease in self-confidence. -Four further symptoms: such as guilt, pessimism, ideas of self-harm or suicide, reduced concentration.

Answer 75

One strength of the biological explanation of depression is there is supporting research evidence. There is evidence examined for serotonin levels in depressed people, (lower levels of serotonin in brains of people with depression than control group of not depressed group). Suggests there is a link between low levels of serotonin and depression One weakness of this explanation is not definitive. The low levels of serotonin could be influenced by depression, or the other way around. You could either feel depressed and that results in low levels of serotonin. We don't know weather depression is a cause or a effect of low serotonin. Another weakness is that depression may not be only caused by low levels of serotonin, unlikely that neurotransmitters alone are the explanation for depression. The explanation is too simple because research shows that some people with low levels of serotonin don't have depression. It can be innate (diathesis), you can be born with low levels of serotonin or in your nature.

Answer 76

The reason for being depressed is because of faulty or irrational thinking. Cognitive approach- thinking process. Faulty thinking- a person looks at the negative than the positive, eg winning 1 million, but thinking about if i won 100 million. Negative schemas- negative experiences in the past, this then effects our thinking and behaviour, in a negative way, specifically this will effect our self esteem. Attributions- This is how we interpret what happens to to us and actions of people around us. you use their actions to explain their personality. There are internal, stable and global attributions which result in depression, these make it difficult to see things change, and there is hope. Internal- it’s my fault I’m stupid Stable- people will never like me again Global- everything I do goes wrong.

Answer 77

One strength Is that there is research to support using dog study. When receiving electric shocks, the dogs gave up trying to avoid the shocks. This leads to support of his explanation of depression as the dogs negative attributions caused them to give up. The cognitive explanation leads to ways of treating depression such as CBT. CBT seeks to reprogram negative thoughts and think about it in a different way. CBT has real world application as it is used in therapy. One weakness is that Negative beliefs may be realistic rather than depressing. There are occasions when life sucks and is realistic to feel sad. Sometimes a negative attributional style maybe a more accurate way of looking at the world.

Answer 78

SSRI ( Selective serotonin reputable inhibitor ) -increase of levels in synaptic cleft. Presynaptic neuron -Serotonin stored in vesicles. Electrical signal in neuron causes the bicycles to release certain in the synaptic cleft. -serotonin molecule gets locked into postsynaptic receptor. SSRIs blocks reuptake so there is more serotonin in synaptic cleft.

Answer 79

One weakness is that there are side effects like nausea, dizziness, weight loss or gain. Although drugs and easy solution they actually may not work because patient stop taking them. The side effects are serious threat to the effectiveness of drug therapies. Another weakness is that questionable evidence for effectiveness. The effectiveness of the drug may not be related to serotonin at all. People are given a pill containing nothing of any medical value still improve. This is because they believe they are receiving treatment and disbelieve alone leads to improvement. One weakness is it has a reductionist approach. The use of an anti-depressant medication targets just neurotransmitters, Suggest that neurotransmitters are the only factor that causes depression. A more successful treatment might include both biological and psychological approaches

Answer 80

30 % of patients with depression recovered using SSRIs Aim- to see the benefit of CBT and and antidepressant medication for treating resistant depression compared to only using antidepressant alone. coBaIt- both medication and CBT Method- 469 pts from Bristol, exerted, and Glasgow. All ppts had treatment resistant depression- they took the medication for more than 6 weeks, but still showed symptoms of clinical depression. Patients were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 conditions using computer generated code. 1) antidepressant only 2) antidepressant and CBT Improvement was assessed by measuring symptoms using BDI (survey) Results- after 6 months, 90 % remained in the study. Antidepressant + CBT = greater levels of recovery and symptoms didn’t recover. Conclusion- antidepressant don’t work really well. Benefits for CBT + medication can be maintained over 12 months.

Answer 81

One strength is that it’s a well designed study, as it’s controlled extraneous variables, 1 extraneous was participant differences in both the conditions because it was an independent groups design. It could be the patients in antidepressant were more depressed. To ensure this didn’t happen participants were randomly designed to groups so there should. E no differences, so no effect of participant variables. One weakness is the use of self report methods to determine levels of depression. This means that participants have to make subjective judgments about how they feel. Some people have underestimated how sad they feel and others might have overestimated. This questions the validity of the information collected about depression. One strength of this study is that it is focused on developing a useful therapy. The study shows that a more holistic approach to treating depression is more successful than antidepressant medication. It has real world usefulness.

Answer 82

Dependence- Strong need to continue using substance because body only works normally when substance is present. If not, withdrawal symptoms will occur Addiction- Where a person is dependent on the substance but also does it because of the buzz or escape. psychological.

Answer 83

Misuse is not following the ‘rules’ for usage like taking a substance more often than recommended or using it for something else. Abuse is using the substance to ‘get high’ or to escape because a person’s intentions. eg mood change.

Answer 84

Clinical characteristics from ICD-10. International Classification of Diseases has a category called ‘Mental and behavioural disorders due to psychoactive substance abuse disorders’. ( 'psychoactive' means a drug that has psychological effect.

Answer 85

A diagnosis of addiction should usually be made only if 3 or more characteristics have been present together at some time during the previous year. A strong desire to use the substance- sense of compulsion to substance Persisting despite known harm- continuing to take the substance despite clear evidence of negative consequences eg damage to liver Difficulty in controlling use- person pay have problems stopping usage or limit levels of use. A higher priority given to the substance- the substance use matters more to them than other activities or responsibilities. their other interests / pleasures are neglected. Withdrawal symptoms if substance/activity is stopped- person feels worse than normal when they stop using the substance / cut down how much they take. Evidence of tolerance- needing more doses to achieve the same effect.

Answer 86

Aim- to see if alcoholism is inherited. Method- Used male twins from Sweden. the twins were identified using temperance boards, these were used to register and follow individuals who had problems with alcohol abuse. 310 twins were identified where at least 1 of them was registered in the temperance board. He conducted interviews with those twins and relatives, and were asked about their drinking habits and if the twins were identical or non identical 48 were identical (MZ) and 126 non identical (DZ). Results- 61% of the MZ twins were both alcoholic whereas only 39% of the DZ twins were both alcoholic. Conclusion- The alcohol abuse is related to genetic inheritance.

Answer 87

One weakness of this study is that there were flaws in the design of his study. He was not actually studying alcoholism, temperance board data only includes some kinds of alcohol problems - public display of their abuse. People were only registered if they were arrested for public drunkness or committing a crime with alcohol. This may not have been accurate and lacks validity. One strength is that the results have been supported by later research. Kendler conducted a better controlled study using a larger sample (2516 twins from Swedish temperance register). They again found that if 1 co twin was alcoholic, their twin was more likely to also be alcoholic if they were MZ twins than if they were DZ twins. Research supports the view that genetic factors have an influence on alcoholism for both males and females One weakness is that they may be misleading. Some people assume that a biological explanation means that, if you inherit certain genes, then addiction is certain to happen. Genes increase the risk of addiction but aren’t the only factor, this shows that both nature and nurture are important Small sample, Sweden males, cant be generalised

Answer 88

behaviour acquired from experience

Answer 89

effect that our peers have on us.

Answer 90

behaviour of a group of people.

Answer 91

Social learning theory How other people in our world influence us eg friends, family, wtc. We imitate what other people are doing. We especially imitate people we admire / identify with. We imitate them especially if they are seen to be rewarded. Social norms Social norms- We learn from peoples behaviours or attitudes, as in some situations its not clear how to behave and we look at others to tell us what to do. Addiction- tell you what is acceptable for your social group. Drinking in a group may be normalised, so violence or bad language. Functioning alcoholics are able to continue their normal lives, whilst drinking. Social identity theory You identify with your social groups (e.g. ethnicity, social class, same interests) You want to be accepted by them, therefore you behave and think like them. Teenagers in particular may feel ‘pressure’ to conform to the social norms of their peer group. Creating opportunities for addictive behaviour Peers also influence addictive behaviour because they provide opportunities for the peers to smoke or use alcohol. eg older person is forced to buy alcolol as they are allowed. Peers may provide direct instruction about what to do.

Answer 92

One strength is that explanation of addiction is that there is research support. Simons reviewed 40 studies into the relationship between peers and smoking and found that all but one showed a positive correlation between the two factors. This shows a strong relationship between peers and addiction. Peer influence is a risk factor One weakness is that peers may not be doing any influencing. It may be that what is actually happening is that people select friendship groups where members are behaving like they are, rather than conforming to the social norm of the group. This means that the addictive behaviour is shared within a friendship group rather than the group causing the addiction through social norms and group pressure. One strength of the peer influence explanation is its real-world application.

Answer 93

Aversion therapy -Produces a conditional response. -Addict learns to associate their addiction with something unpleasant, and therefore avoids the addictive substance. Treating alcoholism -A drug like Antabuse is taken which causes nausea. -Just before vomiting, the addict has an alcoholic drink several times. -Treatment involves repitions to strengthen the association between neutral stimulus (alcohol) and unconditioned stimulus ( antabuse) -After repeated pairing, the alcohol becomes a conditioned stimulus causing vomiting ( conditional response) -Before conditioning, alcohol was associated with pleasure. After conditioning, it is associated with something unpleasant and thus avoided. Treating gambling -An addicted gambler writes phrases related or unrelated to gambling on cards. -The gambler reads out each card and gets an electric shock for gambling-related phrases. -Unconditioned stimulus- shock -Neutral stimulus- gamble related phrases -Pain- conditioned response. Treating smoking -Addicted smoker rapidly smokes in closed room. -Disgust/nausea from smoking is associated with smoking. (conditioned response)

Answer 94

A weakness addicts may abandon the therapy as it uses stimuli that are unpleasant. Many addicts drop out before the treatment is completed. It wouldn’t work unless the aversive stimulus was negative. This means it is difficult to assess the effectiveness of the treatment. A weakness is that benefits of aversion therapy seem to be short-term rather than long-term. Nathaniel found aversion therapy was much more effective in reducing gambling behaviour and cravings after 1 month than after 1 year. In long term, placebo effect is better. This suggests that aversion therapy lacks overall effectiveness. One strength is that aversion therapy can be combined with cognitive behaviour therapy for greater effectiveness. Aversion therapy gets rid of the immediate urge to use the addictive substance and CBT provides longer lasting support where a person’s thoughts and feelings are worked on. This provides a longer-term solution to the addiction.

Answer 95

1. Admit powerlessness over the addiction- This will help the addict stop blaming themselves. 2. Find hope, believe that a higher power (in whatever form) can help- Addict will be more optimistic that they can beat their addiction. 3. Surrender control over to the higher power- Addict feels they will have someone else to help them. 4. Take a personal inventory, focusing on wrongs done- Addict will take responsibility for their actions 5. Share inventory with the higher power, oneself and another person, admitting wrongs done- Addict will feel less guilty. 6. Become ready to have the higher power correct any shortcomings in one's character- Addict will focus on self improvement. 7. Ask the higher power to remove those shortcomings- Addict will feel they are a better person. 8. Make list of people who have been harmed- Helps addict become aware of the consequences of their actions. 9. Make amends if possible for any past wrong- Addict will reduce guilt and feel they are doing something positive. 10. Continue personal inventory and recognise wrongs immediately- Addict will be more honest with themselves. 11. Use prayer and meditation to continue connection with the higher power- This will make addict calmer and less likely to need addiction. 12. Carry the message of the 12 Steps to others in need- Helping others will help addict help themselves. Self-management programmes/self-help groups/12 step recovery programme can be viewed as holistic because they help people to work on the 'bigger picture'. This is done by not only dealing with someone’s urge to use a substance, but also by addressing other factors that are often linked to addiction, such as environmental or social factors. They also help people to address things from their past like trauma or loss.

Answer 96

Some research suggests that there is no significant difference in the success rate of these programmes and other available treatments. * Self-management programmes work best when attended regularly and for a long time. * There is research suggesting the dropout rate for self-management programmes is between 40% and 60%. * People need to be willing to share their personal experiences and emotions with others. This type of intervention may not appeal to everyone. * Self-management programmes are holistic. They help people address their need to use a substance as well as considering reasons people became addicted. * Control groups cannot be used for ethical and methodological reasons which limits the scientific rigour of research into effectiveness

Psychology Paper 2 Flashcards

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