psychology - research methods

Question 1

what are demand characteristics ?

Answer 1

demand characteristics - a cue from the researcher or situation that may give away the purpose of the investigation leading to the participant changing their behaviour. they may unconsciously try to please the researcher or sabotage

social desirability bias: they act to impress the people around them

Question 2

what are the 2 types of extraneous variables and examples?

Answer 2

participant - individual differences between participants that may affect the Dv e.g mood, personality type, IQ , amount of sleep, health

situational - features of the experiment situation that may affect the dv e.g time, temperature, weather, noise, lighting, conditions

Question 3

how do we combat demand characteristics and investigator effects?

Answer 3

demand - ‘single blind technique’ - participants are unaware of the aims of the study (deception)

investigator - ‘double blind technique’ - both the researcher and participant dont know the aim of the study , a research assistant carries out the study instead

Question 4

What is the difference between extraneous variables and confounding variables?

Answer 4

extraneous (before the study)- any variables that may affect the dv if not controlled e.g age, lighting, weather, time of day, noise.

confounding(after the study)- relatedto what we are investigating any variable that may have affected the dv so we cant be sure if the change in dv is due to the iv e.g personality type may be increasing chattiness not the energy drink

Question 5

what is operationalisation?

Answer 5

to make something measurable so that we can establish cause and effect
otherwise unclear how something can be measured

Question 6

What are the three types of experimental design and explain?

Answer 6

independent groups design - ptps are in different groups where each group represents one experimental condition.

repeated measures design - all ptps take part in all conditions of the experiment. (take part in one condition and then another one later)

matched pairs design - pairs are assigned on some variable that might affect the dv. then one member of the pair is assigned to condition A and the other condition B

Question 7

What are order effects and how do we control for this?

Answer 7

this is when the order of conditions effects the performance of participants e.g practice effect, fatigue effect, boredom effect.

To combat this the researcher can counter balance the order of conditions. split the sample into two groups and then alternate the order in which they perform in these conditions. this cancels out the order effects

Question 8

when do we use a directional and non directional hypothesis

Answer 8

directional is used when the findings of previous research suggest a particular outcome

non directional is used when no previous research has been conducted in the area

Question 9

what is the difference between internal and external validity.

Answer 9

external : can it be generalised to other settings (ecological) and over time (temporal)

internal : the extent to which the researcher measured what they intended to, did something else influence the dv?

Question 10

what is a lab experiment

Answer 10

lab experiment : takes place in a highly controlled environment, standardized, manipulation of iv to see effect on dv

Question 11

explain these sampling types: random, systematic, volunteer, opporutinity, stratified

Answer 11

random : everyone has an equal chance of being selected e.g names out a hat

systematic sampling : every nth person in the sampling frame is selected

stratified: selected in proportion to their frequency in the population e.g if 20% of the population is under 18, 20% of the sample must be under 18. after people are randomly selected

opportunity: selecting people who are most easily available at the time of study

Question 12

what are the 5 ethical issues ? HINT : DRIPP

Answer 12

deception
right to withdraw
informed consent
protection of participants
privacy and confidentiality

Question 13

what are the three types of consent

Answer 13

presumptive consent : get consent from a similar group of people and assume the same answers

prior general consent : consent to a number of studies and one will involve deception so they are consenting being deceived

retrospective consent: ask for consent after they have taken part and they can retract their data

Question 14

what is the success criteria for a consent form

Answer 14

begin like a letter : dear participant

aim of the study present tense
details of what they can expect to happen(both conditions)
refer to ethical issues
have space for signature and date
dont assume that they consent

Question 15

debriefing letter success criteria

Answer 15

begin like a letter : dear participant
reveal other conditions
right to withdraw data
offer support
thank participants and sign off

Question 16

psossible errors in an interview

Answer 16

jargon : specialist terms only some will know

double barreled questions: two qs in one

double negatives makes it hard to decipher

emotive language : attitude is clear from the phrasing of the question

Question 17

what are the 5 types of observations

Answer 17

naturalistic: researcher doesnt interfere and lets the stiuation happen naturally

controlled : situation is controlled by the researcher

covert and overt: ptps are unaware or aware theyre being observed

participant observation: researcher becomes part of the group and partakes in activities

Question 18

what is a correlation and explain correlational hypothesis

Answer 18

correlations look for a relationship between co variables not cause and effect

correlational hypothesis only state a prediction of relationship between 2 co - variables

e.g there is a postive relationship between the amount of chocolate purchased anually and obesity levels

Question 19

what does each graph type show

Answer 19

bar chart - shows difference in data

scatter- assciation between co - variables (correlation)

histogram - shows how grouped data is spread

line graph - shows variable changing

Question 20

hwo to identify the 4 types of graphs

Answer 20

histogram bars always touch

bar graph bars dont touch

line graph - line joins each data point together

scatter graph scattered point with a line of best fit sometimes

Question 21

what are the aims of peer review

Answer 21

to allocate research funding

to validate the quality and relevance of research

to suggest amendments and improvements

Question 22

what are case studies?

Answer 22

a case study is and in depth investigation of a unique situation or individual

they are longitudinal so the researcher can see how behaviour changes over time

produce qualitative data

Question 23

weakness of case studies

Answer 23

They are unique so findings cant be generalised

they are subjective and conclusions are based on the researchers opinion

Question 24

strengths of case studies

Answer 24

researchers are more open minded because they dont have an aim

best way to study unusual forms of behaviour

changes can be seen over a long period of time

detailed info about an individuals situation

Question 25

explain the procedure of content analysis(turn qualitative data into quantitate )

Answer 25

1. read the qualitative data 2. identify the coding units 3. read the qualitative data again and tally every time you see reference to the coding units

Question 26

explain the procedure of thematic analysis

Answer 26

1. read through the qualitative data 2. identify the common themes as they appear and create categories 3. check validity of the themes by reading the qual data again and make sure it represent the overall coverage 4. write the findings into the report and use direct quotes to represent the theme

Question 27

strengths of content and thematic analysis

Answer 27

limited ethical issues with obtaining permission usually open to the public quantitative data is easier to analyse and make comparisons qualitative data is rich and in depth

Question 28

weakness of content and thematic analysis

Answer 28

no causation as there's no manipulation of iv and dv, result are subjective people are studied indirectly so communications are produced outside of context, researcher may attribute opinions to the ptp that weren't initially intended

Question 29

difference between descriptive statistics and inferential statistics

Answer 29

descriptive statistics summarise the characteristics of a data set(mean median SD) inferential statistics allow you to determine whether a correlation or difference exists or is due to chance: (cscmwsurp)

Question 30

3 criterion for a sign test

Answer 30

data must be nominal : in categories research must be finding a difference design must be related aka matched pairs or repeated measures

Question 31

define test retest

Answer 31

administering the same test to the same people on different occasions if the questionnaire is reliable the results should be similar each time they are administered

Question 32

why must there be time between test and retest

Answer 32

to ensure participants cant recall the answers to their questions but not so long that their thoughts and attitudes have changed the two scores are then correlated to see if theyre similar. a score above .80 means reliability is assumed

Question 33

provide the acronym for sign test

Answer 33

carrots should come mashed with swede under roast potato

Question 34

what is nominal data

Answer 34

data is in categories e.g how many boys and girls in the year group

Question 35

what is ordinal data

Answer 35

data is ordered in some way e.g class is asked to rate how much they like ice age on a scale of 1-10

Question 36

what is interval data

Answer 36

based on numerical scales that include units of equal intervals e.g anything you can take measurements with like how a stopwatch measures time

Question 37

say the grid for sign test

Answer 37

chi squared sign test chi squared mann whitney wilcoxon spearmans rho unrelated t test related t test pearsons rho

Question 38

what is the criteria for a sign test

Answer 38

date must be nominal = in categories must be looking for a difference research design must be related: repeated measures of matched pairs

Question 39

what does it mean for a test to have high concurrent validity?

Answer 39

where there is a close agreement between the data produced by the new test compared to the established test, this is established if the correlation between the 2 sets of data produced is above 0.8

Question 40

cons of repeated measures

Answer 40

pros: participant variables are controlled =high validity less ptps needed= less time recruiting them cons: leads to order effects such as practice, boredom or fatigue affect, this affects performance in the second task demad characteristics - will work out the aim of the study if they take part in all conditions

Question 41

Pros and cons of the matched pairs design?

Answer 41

pros: ptps only take part in one condition so order effects and demand characteristics are less of a problem cons: participants can never be matched exactly even w mz twins there are differences that may affect the dv matching can be time consuming and expensive especially if theres a pre test

Question 42

pros and cons of independent groups design?

Answer 42

PROS: order effects are not a problem like they are in repeated measures as they take part in one condition participants are less likely to guess the aim cons: less economical and each participant only produces a single result, need 2x as many ptps to gain the info provided by repeated measures. more time and money spent on recruiting ptps

Question 43

cons of independent groups design?

Answer 43

less economical and each participant only produces a single result, need 2x as many ptps to gain the info provided by repeated measures. more time and money spent on recruiting ptps

Question 44

what is a quasi experiment?

Answer 44

uses a naturally ocurring difference e.g male and female or age categories

Question 45

what is a field experiment?

Answer 45

an experiment that takes place in a natural setting (the real world) manipulation of iv to see effect on dv

Question 46

what is a natural experiment?

Answer 46

an experiment where the iv isnt brough about by the researcher but naturally (wouldve happened if the researcher wasnt there)

Question 47

what is a confounding variable?

Answer 47

a kind of extraneous variable that when present we cant tell if the change in dv is due to the Iv or confounding variables

Question 48

what is investigator effects?

Answer 48

any effect of the investigators behaviour on the out come of the research investigator effects - when the investigator influences how participants behave in a study because they desire a particular outcome

Question 49

what is an extraneous variable?

Answer 49

any variable other than the IV that may affect the dependent variable if its not controlled

Question 50

What does it mean if the study is significant at a 0.05(5%) level

Answer 50

We can be 95% confident that the results from our study are due to the Iv and 5% might be due to chance

Question 51

what is a type 1 error

Answer 51

This is a false positive as the researcher claims to have found a significant difference or correlation when one does not exist The null is rejected when it should be accepted the alternative is accepted when it should be rejected

Question 52

What is a type 2 error

Answer 52

This is a false negative as the researcher claims to have found no difference or correlation when one does exist the null is accepted when it should be rejected the alternative is rejected when it should be accepted

Question 53

What is a null hypothesis

Answer 53

a null hypothesis states there is no difference between the conditions

Question 54

How to achieve level 4 band in a design your study question

Answer 54

1. all 4 elements must be adressed 2. one paragraph per bullet point 3. suggestions must be practical 4. every suggestion must be justified 5. answers must be detailed enough to replicate

Question 55

how to reference a book?

Answer 55

surname, letter of first name.(year).title of book.place of publication, publisher

Question 56

How to reference a journal?

Answer 56

surname, letter of first name. (year). Title of journal article. Title of journal, journal volume/ issue number. the page numbers

Question 57

What is the abstract of the psychological report

Answer 57

the brief overview serves as a summary of what your paper contains. what your paper is about and what your reader can expect to find 150-300 words max

Question 58

what is the introduction of a psychological report

Answer 58

a literature review of the general area of investigation detailing relevant theories, concepts and studies related to the current study

Question 59

method

Answer 59

The type of research, design, materials, samples, ethics, procedure

Question 60

results

Answer 60

summarise the key findings in two sections 1. descriptive stats: e.g measures of central tendency, stats, dispersion 2. inferential stats: statistical test, calculated and critical values, accepted or rejected hypothesis

Question 61

discussion

Answer 61

summarise the findings in a verbal form discuss findings in relation to previous research possible limitations wider implications

Question 62

what are the 5 features of a science

Answer 62

Paradigm and paradigm shift theory construction and hypothesis testing falsification replicability objectivity an empirical method

Question 63

what is a paradigm? what is a paradigm shift?

Answer 63

a paradigm is a shared set of beliefs about how behaviour can be explained a paradigm shift is when there's a significant change in the dominant unifying theory within a scientific discipline

Question 64

What's the difference between theory reconstruction and hypothesis testing?

Answer 64

Theory reconstruction involves gathering evidence via a direct observation to create theories and explanations of phenomena. e.g using digit span test to test STM capacity hypothesis testing is conducting experiements or studies to gather data that either supports or challenges existing theories

Question 65

What is objectivity and the empirical method

Answer 65

They must not allow for their personal opinions or biases to affect the data they collect or influence the behaviour of participants. emphasis on data collection based on direct experience

Question 66

Why is replicability important?

Answer 66

Psychologists report their investigation with as much precision and detail as possible so other researchers can verify the findings/ Scientific method involves defining a problem and formulating a hypothesis which is tested with empirical research. Research findings are an important part of this process. If we wish to draw conclusions from research studies, the procedures and findings should be repeatable

Question 67

what is popper's falsifiability?

Answer 67

Theories should allow for hypothesis testing and to be proven false. a theory should have the ability to be proven false

Question 68

what is a pilot study?

Answer 68

Small-scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real investigation is conducted. Usually with less participants. in order to check: Procedures Materials Measuring scales (how we measure our DV) Ensure everything works and to allow time to make changes if necessary.

Question 69

what is a benefit and disadvantage of using the mean?

Answer 69

It includes all the values in the data set. This means it is more representative of the data as a whole. the mean is easily distorted by extreme values. Whereby the mean is no longer representative of the data overall.

Question 70

what is a benefit and disadvantage of using the median?

Answer 70

It does not take all sets of data into account, it is therefore less sensitive than the mean and may be argued to be less representative Unlike the mean, extreme scores do not affect the median value. The media remains the same.

Question 71

what do we conclude from low standard deviation? what do we conclude from high standard deviation?

Answer 71

a large standard deviation suggests participant variables are affecting the results and participants weren't impacted by the IV in the same way because the data is widely spread/varying Low standard deviation: data is tightly clustered around the mean → less variability in behavior or responses, and all participants responded to the IV in a fairly similar way

Question 72

pro and con of using the range

Answer 72

its easy to calculate its not representative because it only takes into account the 2 most extreme values

Question 73

pro and con of using standard deviation

Answer 73

SD takes into account all scores and is therefore less representative over the general spread Like the mean, SD is affected by anomalous results

Question 74

how to identify if a distribution is negatively skewed or positively skewed

Answer 74

if the data is positively skewed, the mean will be bigger than the median and mode if the data is negatively skewed the mean will be smaller than the median and mode

Question 75

explain what it means for a test to have high concurrent validity ?

Answer 75

The test shows high concurrent validity **if its results strongly correlate with those from an established test measuring the same thing.** close agreement (above .80) between the two sets of data indicates the new test has high concurrent validity

Question 76

what does it mean if a test has high face validity

Answer 76

at face value a test appears to measure what its supposed to measure this can be done by simply looking at the measuring instruments

Question 77

What is internal validity

Answer 77

whether results are solely affected by changes in the IV in a causal relationship and not extraneous variables

Question 78

What is external validity?

Answer 78

whether data can be generalised to other situations outside of the research environment they were originally gathered in ecological validity - can they be applied in the real world temporal validity - can the findings be applied across time

Question 79

how to counter order effects 😉

Answer 79

Counterbalancing involves changing the order in which participants complete conditions to reduce order effects. e.g split the sample in half and then half the participants do condition A then B, and the other half do B then A. This ensures any effects due to order are evenly distributed, so they don’t bias the results.

Question 80

what are the 2 ways of assessing reliability

Answer 80

test retest inter observer reliability

Question 81

explain inter observer/ rater reliability(how to reduce observation bias)

Answer 81

two or more observers use the same behavioural categories each observer makes independent observations/tallies of behaviour. they will compare their tally charts to calculate correlation between their observations and determine inter observer reliability anything abovee a 0.8 correlation is good reliability

Question 82

how to improve reliability for questionnaire, observations and lab experiments

Answer 82

questionnaires: replace open questions w closed questions remove or rewrite complex or ambiguous questions observations: ensure behavioural. Categories are operationalised to ensure less interpretation categories should not overlap lab experiments: standardised procedures

Question 83

how to improve reliability for interviews and content analysis

Answer 83

use the same interviewer or structured interview and train to not ask leading questions. structured interview with standardized controlled and fixed questions researchers should agree on/clarify operationalised categories or create new mutually exclusive categories. researchers should be carefully trained on how to use these categories/codes

Question 84

what are the pros and cons of using correlations

Answer 84

pros: precise/ quantifiable/objective quicker and cheaper than experiments as they dont need controlled environments. typically uses secondary data like gov stats cons: only says if 2 variables are related but not why. Cant not state direction of effect it is unclear which variable is effecting the other Third variable problems an intervening variable may be the reason for the relationship

Question 85

what's the difference between continuous and discrete data.

Answer 85

continuous: data thats on a scale/ interval e.g height/time discrete: data thats in categories

Question 86

what are the 2 types of sampling in observation

Answer 86

time sampling event sampling

Question 87

what are the requirements formatting behavioural categories

Answer 87

categories should not overlap categories should be clear and measurable categories should be observable and self evident

Question 88

what is time sampling and what is 1 pro and 1 con

Answer 88

recording behaviour at specific time intervals rather than continuously e.g record what is happening every 30 seconds effective in reducing the number of observations that have to be made those instances where behaviour is sampled may be unrepresentative of the observation as a whole

Question 89

what is event sampling and what is one pro and one con

Answer 89

recording target behaviour whenever it occurs regardless of time useful when the target behaviour happens infrequently and could be missed if time sampling was used. may miss context. only records the actual behaviour so what happens before and after can get ignored.