Psychology & Sociology Flashcards
(176 cards)
1
Q
Punishment
A
Decreases Behavior
2
Q
Reinforcement
A
Increases Behavior
3
Q
Positive Reinforcement
A
Desirable stimulus added (toddler gets candy for using the toilet)
4
Q
Negative Reinforcement
A
Undesirable stimulus removed (teen doesn’t do chores after getting all As)
5
Q
Positive Punishment
A
Undesirable stimulus added (toddler gets spanked for running into street)
6
Q
Negative Punishment
A
Desirable stimulus removed (teen isn’t allowed to go to a party for poor grades)
7
Q
Operant Conditioning
A
The likelihood of an individual repeating a behavior is influenced by the outcome of the behavior
8
Q
Escape Learning
A
A type of learning in which the subject is able to remove the undesirable removed (teen fakes an illness while doing dishes and gets to stop)
9
Q
Avoidance Learning
A
A type of learning in which the subject prevents the undesirable stimulus (teen stays late at school to avoid doing chores)
10
Q
Functionalism
A
The paradigm that conceptualizes society as a living organism with many different interrelated and interdependent parts, all with a distinct and necessary purpose. Durkheim was a major proponent.
11
Q
Dynamic Equilibrium
A
From a functionalist POV, all of the interdependent parts keep the society ordered, balanced and stable. If a crisis occurs, then functionalists propose that major structures will work together to come back to the state of dynamic equilibrium
12
Q
Manifest functions
A
are the official, intended, and anticipated consequences of a structure
13
Q
Latent functions
A
are consequences pf a structure that are not officially sought or sanctioned
14
Q
Social dysfunction
A
is a process in that the undesirable consequences reduce the stability of the society
15
Q
Conflict theory
A
A macro-level theory that views society as a never-ending competition for limited resources. Marx heavily believed this idea (think capitalism, bourgeois, proletariat)
16
Q
Max Weber
A
17
Q
Projection
A
(defense mechanism) attributing one’s unacceptable thoughts/behaviors to someone or something else
18
Q
Regression
A
(defense mechanism) behaving as if much younger to avoid unacceptable thoughts/behaviors
19
Q
Displacement
A
(defense mechanism) taking out unacceptable thoughts/behaviors on a safe target
20
Q
Sublimation
A
(defense mechanism) transforming unacceptable thoughts/behaviors to acceptable thoughts and behaviors
21
Q
Social constructionism
A
Social actors define what is real, knowledge of the world based on interactions. (think premenstrual symptoms being classified as a psychiatric disorder due to prominence)
22
Q
Reaction formation
A
behaving in a manner opposite to unacceptable thoughts/behaviors (think saying you hate your boss that you are attracted to)
23
Q
Organization (Sociology Definition)
A
Social structures composed of individuals linked by specific purposes, tasks, and/or common goals.
24
Q
Normative organization
A
people voluntarily unite based on shared values and/or goals
25
Utilitarian organization
members are compensated for their involvement typically through money or certification
26
Coercive organization
membership is not freely chosen and/or maintained (think prisoners or military)
27
Stereotype
Generalized beliefs (good or bad) about social groups
28
Prejudice
Negative belief & feeling about someone based on membership in a social group
29
Discrimination
Negative treatment of someone based on membership in a social group
30
Dominant culture
Learned values, beliefs and behaviors shared by most in society
31
Subculture
Values and norms do not oppose dominant culture, although group is characteristically distinct
32
Counterculture
Values and norms oppose the dominant culture
33
Aggregate
Is a collection of individuals who share a common location but do not identify as a group
34
Types of Norm
Folkways, Mores, Taboos
35
Folkways
Least deviant norm, minor punishments (ex: staring), think wearing clothes backwards
36
Mores
More deviant norm, more serious punishments (ex: arrest) think wearing no clothes in public
37
Taboos
Most deviant norm, most serious punishment (ex: incarceration), think incest, suicide
38
Stereotype boost
aka stereotype lift, occurs when a positive stereotype about social groups improve performances, think Asian students performing better on test after being told Asians are good at math
39
Ascribed status
Assigned social position (think race)
40
Achieved status
Attained social position (think doctor)
41
Master status
Dominant social position (think ex-convict)
42
McDonaldization
A critical perspective of bureaucracy that describes the process by which extreme efficiency and rationalization produce negative consequences (think how you always need to check the McDonalds bag post getting food)
43
Common sense view of emotion
suggests that something first causes the emotion and then that causes a physiological response (think: dog - fear- heart racing)
44
James-Lange theory
Reversed of the common sense theory, where something causes the physiological response that then the brain registers as an emotion (think: dog- heart racing- fear)
45
Schachter-Singer theory
this is the idea that the emotion is resulted after physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal (think: dog -heart racing - interpretation - fear)
46
Limbic system
This system is a network of brain regions involved in emotion, learning, and memory, which includes the physical areas of amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus and the cingulate gyrus
47
Hypothalamus
This structure regulated the pituitary gland and the autonomic nervous system. It controls the release of hormones that maintain homeostatic functions (parasympathetic) or prepare the body to respond to a stressor ( sympathetic). The hypothalamus is responsible for the physiological response of emotion.
48
Cannon-Bard Theory
suggests that physiological arousal and emotion are separate and independent and therefore occur simultaneously
49
Group identification
refers to the extent to which an individual perceives themself as a member of a larger collective
50
Social identity
describes how one's self concept is shaped by group membership
51
Electroencephalogram (EEG
Electrodes placed on scalp & connect to amplifier, which measures fluctuation in the brain over time
52
Computerized tomography (CT)
Computer combines multiple x-rays taken at different angles, which provides the detailed structure of internal organs and tissues at a single point in time
53
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
Scanner detects the differential properties of oxyhemoglobin and deoxyhemoglobin, which measures the changes in blood oxygenation in the brain over time
54
Positron emission tomography (PET)
Scanner detects radioactive tracer attached to a glucose analog, which measures changes in glucose metabolism in the brain over time
55
Sociological approach to aging: Activity
remaining physically and socially active improves the quality of life for older adults
56
Sociological approach to aging: Continuity
Older adults attempt to maintain the habits and behaviors from their youth
57
Sociological approach to aging: Disengagement
Older adults withdraw from social relationships/society as society withdraws from them
58
Sociological approach to aging: Life course
Aging views holistically in terms of social, biological, cultural, and psychological contexts
59
Operant Conditioning - Principles of Training a new Behavior
1. Increase the motivational state (deprive of desirable stimulus)
2. Shaping (Reward successive approximations of desirable behavior
3. Continuous Reinforcement (reward desirable behavior every time it occurs)
60
Long-term potentiation (LTP)
Describes an enduring increase in synaptic transmission of neurons, which the neural foundation for learning and memory consolidation (think of the mouse in water trying to get to the platform, after finding it the first time, it will get easier to find each time)
61
Sensory adaptation
is the decreased responsiveness of a sensory neuron over time in response to a constant stimulus
62
State-dependent memory
is a phenomenon whereby memory retrieval is most efficient when an individual's internal state at the time of retrieval is the same as when the memory was encoded (think of the idea of learning while drunk and then taking the test)
63
Tonic receptors
are sensory receptors that continue to produce action potentials throughout the duration of the stimulus (NOT found in the brain)
64
Neuroplasticity
refers to lasting changes in the brain that occur when interacting with the environment alters neurons and/or pathways. This can refer to both increases in neuronal connections (POTENTIATION) or the decrease in neuronal response (DEPRESSION)
65
Synaptic plasticity
results from changes in the firing rate of the presynaptic neuron, which alters the neurotransmitter rate. This can be a quick or a long term change
66
Structural plasticity
results from the physical changes in neuronal connections. This would be sprouting (increased connections between neurons), rerouting (new connections between neurons), or pruning (decreased connections between neurons). This does not occur quickly.
67
Implicit memory
type of memory that does not require conscious thought. Different types: Procedural (skills and tasks) and Emotional (reflexive)
68
Explicit memory
type of memory in which the information is consciously or intentionally recalled. Different types: Episodic (memory for personal experiences think first day of college) and Semantic (fact-based knowledge think name of first US president)
69
Confirmation bias
is a type of cognitive bias (common error in thinking) in which individuals tend to embrace evidence supporting their beliefs, dismiss or ignore evidence refuting their beliefs and interpret ambiguous evidence as support
70
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
explains that cognitive dissonance (mental conflict) results from beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors that are contradictory or incompatible. Cognitive dissonance causes a state of discomfort that results in motivation to reduce the conflict by aligning thoughts and behaviors
71
Attributional biases
are cognitive biases (common errors in thinking) that occur when people attempt to explain their own behavior or the behavior of someone else
72
Actor-observer bias
is an attributional bias that describes the tendency to attribute one's own actions to external factors but the actions of others to internal factors
73
Self-serving bias
is an attributional bias that occurs when individuals credit their successes to internal factors but blame failures on external factors
74
Social networks
are informal and nonhierarchical webs of interaction between nodes, which are linked by ties. Nodes can be either individuals or organizations
75
Social capital
refers to a person's network of people that can be converted into economic gain (has nothing to do with the strength of the ties)
76
Social mobility
refers to the movement of individuals, groups, or families between or within status categories in a society (think of the movement of middle to upper class)
77
Sensory memory
This is the instant information intake of the environment. (auditory/echoic - a few seconds) (visual/iconic - less than a second)
78
Short term memory
This is the memory that is taken slightly longer than the information received in the sensory memory. The duration is about 20 seconds and a capacity of 7 +- 2 items
79
Working memory
This process of memory pulls information from short term and long-term memory to be able to manipulate and process the information
80
Parts of the working memory
1. Central Executive
2. Phonological loop
3. Episodic buffer
4. Visuospatial sketchpad
81
Central Executive
a part of the working memory that regulates attention and task switching and three subsystems which are controlled by this
82
Visuospatial sketchpad
is used when manipulating visual and/or spatial information (think reading a map)
83
Phonological Loop
is used when manipulating spoken and written information (think reading a book)
84
Episodic buffer
is used for temporal processing (understanding the timeline of events) and integrating information from long-term memory into working memory (think about figuring out multiplication while figuring out a tip for a restaurant)
85
Motion parallax (relative motion)
is a monocular cue whereby objects in the foreground are perceived as moving faster than objects in the background (able to perceive depth and motion)
86
Parallel Processing
the brain's ability to process several different components of a stimulus simultaneously
87
Sensory Receptors
are specialized neurons that detect stimuli in the internal or external environment and transmit information to the brain for interpretation and perception
88
Mechanoreceptor
Detects: movement
Stimuli: sound waves, touch
Example: hair cells (ear
89
Chemoreceptor
Detects: chemicals
Stimuli: molecules, solutes
Example: taste buds (tongue)
90
Thermoreceptor
Detects: temperature
Stimuli: heat, cold
Example: skin
91
Photoreceptor
Detects: light waves
Stimuli: visible light
Example: rods, cones (retina)
92
Piaget's theory of cognitive development
Stages:
Sensorimotor (less than 2)
Preoperational (2-7)
Concrete operational (7-11)
Formal operational (greater than 12)
93
Bottom-up vs. Top-down processing
Bottom-up processing starts with sensory input and builds to a final perception in the brain. Top-down processing involves prior knowledge and expectations influencing perception
94
Place theory
explains the perception of sound pitch (how high or low a tone is)
95
Wernicke's area
portion of the temporal lobe that is responsible for language comprehension
96
Frontal lobe
executive function, voluntary motor initiation
97
Parietal lobe
Proprioception, somatosensation
98
Occipital lobe
visual processing
99
Temporal lobe
learning, memory, auditory processing
100
Front stage behaviors
behavior in social situations, "actor" preforms based on the expectations of the "audience", impression management (meant to shape perceptions of others), focus on appearance, manners and social status
101
Backstage self
behavior in private, "actor" can relax and no longer needs to preform, behavior is spontaneous and free from evaluation or judgement by others
102
Attribution theory
suggests that individuals tend to explain behavior (their own or that of others) as resulting from internal or external causes
103
Internal (dispositional) attributions
ascribe behavior to personal factors, such as personality, ability, or attitude
104
External (situational) attributions
ascribe behavior to environmental factors, such as task difficulty, presence of others, or luck
105
Left hemisphere responsibilities
analytical thought
language
reasoning
math
science
controls touch and movement on RIGHT side
106
Right hemisphere responsibilities
spatial processing
emotion
art
music
visualization
controls touch and movement on LEFT side
107
Mirror neurons
are specialized neurons in the brain that fire both while observing and performing a behavior, found in frontal and parietal lobes
108
Observational learning
modeling
109
Retroactive interference
occurs when more recently learning information interferes with the learning of older information (think meeting Lisa and Lucy and forgetting Lucy)
110
Proactive Interference
occurs when the older information interferes with the recall of newer information (think meeting Lisa and Lucy and forgetting Lisa)
111
Methods of problem-solving
insight
trial & error
heuristics
algorithms
112
Problem Solving- Insight
Solution occurs in an "a-ha" moment, typically after a mental break from the problem. This is valuable and occurs infrequently
113
Problem Solving- Trial & Error
Series of potential solutions attempted until desired results achieved. This is time-consuming and unsystematic
114
Problem Solving- Heuristics
Strategy or shortcut yielding approximate results. this is fast and potentially error prone
115
Problem Solving- Algorithms
Precise logical or mathematical rule yielding exact results. This is accurate, systematic, and time-consuming
116
Self-fulfilling prophecy
is a belief or prediction about something (which may or may not be true) that influences the behavior of the person who believes it, which then causes the belief to come true
117
Belief perseverance
is a type of cognitive bias in which a person steadfastly holds a belief even when confronting strong evidence to the contrary
118
Fundamental attribution error
is a cognitive bias in which a person overemphasizes internal traits and underemphasizes the role of the environment when attempting to explain another's behavior
119
Motivation
describes the factors that prompt action towards a goal
120
Incentive theory of motivation
suggests that organisms are motivated to act in order to obtain external rewards. (cannot be a biological drive)
121
Central (foveal) Visual Field
Increased density of cone photoreceptors
Bright Light conditions
Color & detail perception
Increased visual acuity
122
Peripheral visual field
Increased density of rod photoreceptors
dim light conditions
motion perception
Increased light sensitivity
123
Daily hassle
type of stressor, common, everyday, think traffic jam
124
Personal life event
type of stressor, major life transition, think divorce
125
Ambient
type of stressor, environmental, affects many people, minor, think pollution
126
Catastrophe
type of stressor, major, affects many people, large-scale tragedy, think natural disaster
127
General adaptation syndrome (GAS)
describes how the body reacts to stress that is acute or long-lasting
multiple stages: pre-chronic stress homeostasis, stage one alarm, stage two resistance, stage three exhaustion
128
Prefrontal cortex
in chronic stress, the prefrontal cortex is shown to have a reduced coping mechanism skills, and hypervigilance
129
Experimental studies
Randomized controlled trial
Nonrandomized design
130
Observational studies
Longitudinal
Cross-sectional
Case-control
Case
131
Review Studies
Meta-analysis
132
Sick Role Theory
Conceptualizes illness as a socially acceptable form of deviance.
Rights: 1. Exemption from normal social rules and responsibilities 2. Lack of accountability for illness
Obligations: 1. Must attempt to get well. 2. Must seek & comply with treatment
133
Borderline personality disorder
is characterized by instability in mood, sense of self, and relationships. Symptoms may include extreme mood reactivity, fear of abandonment, impulsive or reckless behavior and suicidal or self-harming behavior
134
Types of Kinship
Consanguineal (Based on genetic relationship)
Affinal (Based on marriage)
Fictive (social ties that aren't either (adopted children))
135
Sigmund Freud
Personality
Theory: Psychosexual
Attributes: Five psychosexual stages, focused on childhood, unresolved childhood conflicts impacts adult personality
136
Erik Erickson
Personality
Theory: Psychosocial
Attributes: Eight psychosocial stages throughout life, Unresolved crisis at any age impacts adult personality
137
Lev Vygotsky
Cognition
Theory: Sociocultural Cognitive
Attributes: Child's cognitive development based on social interaction
138
Jean Piaget
Cognition
Theory: Cognitive
Attributes: Four universal stages of childhood cognitive development, cognitive development is based on age
139
Lawrence Kohlberg
Morality
Theory: Moral
Attributes: six stages of lifespan moral development, most individuals do not progress past 3 or 4
140
Somatic symptom disorder (SSD)
is a type of somatic symptom and related disorder (SSRD) characterized by extreme distress and concern regarding one of more actual bodily/physical symptoms (think fatigue, pain)
141
Neuroticism
or emotional instability is characterized by a tendency to experience or express negative emotions
142
Counterbalancing
is used to control for the potential effects that the order of the intervention administration may have on the results. For example, if participants were given two interventions, A and B, then counterbalancing would be needed to do B A
143
Psychoanalytic theory (Sigmund Freud)
Personality results from the interaction between the id, ego, and superego
144
Id
selfish, compelling us to seek pleasure and avoid pain
145
Ego
realistic, compelling us to behave in ways that are socially acceptable, and acts as a mediator between the id and the superego
146
Superego
moralistic and idealistic, compelling us towards perfection
147
Social Loafing
occurs when an individual exerts less effort as a member of a group than when alone
148
Causes of social loafing
Diffusion of responsibility
Lack of motivation
Avoidance of over-effort
Lack of oversight
Noncohesive group
149
Fixed ratio
behavior rewarded after a consistent number of responses
150
Variable ratio
behavior rewarded after an inconsistent number of responses
151
Fixed interval
behavior rewarded after a consistent amount of time
152
Variable interval
behavior rewarded after an inconsistent amount of time
153
Language acquistion theory: Learning perspective
language is learned through operant conditioning, and language imitation & practice
154
Language acquisition theory: nativist perspective
language is learned because it is innate and biologically predetermined and occurs during a critical (time-sensitive) period early in life
155
Language acquisition theory: an interactionist perspective
language is learned due to the biological and social aspects of life
156
Universalism
the belief that cognition controls language, posits that certain cognitive processes are universal, so all human languages also possess certain universals
157
Behaviorism
is a theory in psychology that focuses on the role of the environment in shaping human behavior, specifically how reinforcement and punishment shape human behavior
158
Hypothalamus
is centrally located in the brain and is the command center for the endocrine system, which produces hormones that regulate a number of the body's functions, such as growth, metabolism, blood pressure, core body temperature, appetite, and sleep
159
Parkinson's disease
most associated with the substantia nigra, which is in the basal ganglia
160
Fluid Intelligence
ability to apply logic and creative thinking to new situations
161
Crystallized intelligence
ability to apply facts & acquired knowledge to situations
162
Selective attention
ability to focus on one stimulus or task despite distractions
163
Divided attention
ability to attend to two or more tasks or stimuli simultaneously
164
Social class
economic assets (ie. income, property)
165
Social status
prestige among others in society
166
Power
ability to exert control over the actions of others
167
Absolute poverty
is the inability to secure the basic necessities of life, such as food, clean water and shelter
168
Relative poverty
is defined in comparison to the economic conditions of others, which is a more subjective measure encompassing quality of life issues
169
Anomie
a state of normlessness that occurs when a society fails to provide individuals with norms and values to guide behavior
170
The mere exposure effect
(familiarity effect) argues that just the act of being exposed to something increases an individual's affinity for it. you hear a song more and you begin to like it
171
Imitation of a reference group
individuals compare their beliefs and behaviors to those of reference group and begin to model these beliefs and behaviors
172
Malthusian theory
suggests that the human population increases exponentially while resources increase at a slower rate. with this theory, the population growth rate can be slowed by preventative checks and positive checks
173
Malthusian theory - Preventative checks
those that decrease the birth rate (typically voluntary)
174
Malthusian theory - Positive checks
increase the death rate, slowing population growth by shortening average lifespan
175
Malthusian catastrophes
large scale positive checks, dramatically decrease the population, widespread famine, epidemics, wars
176
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
also known as linguistic relativity, describes that language influences our perception and cognition. Think about how if you do not have a large amount of words for the color blue, you do not see all the variations of blue
