Psychology/Sociology Flashcards
(158 cards)
1
Q
Phrenology - Franz Gall
A
the detailed study of the shape and size of the cranium as a supposed indication of character and mental abilities.
2
Q
Pierre Flourens
A
Functions of major sections of the brain. Used extirpation (extraction/full surgery) to study parts of brain.
3
Q
William James and John Dewey - Functionalism
A
How mental processes
help individuals adapt to their environment
4
Q
Broca’s Area
A
speech production
5
Q
Hermann von Helmholtz
A
Speed of impulse. Made psychology a science.
6
Q
Sir Charles Sherrington
A
Synapses
7
Q
Sigmund Freud
A
Psychoanalytic perspectives
8
Q
Sensory neurons
A
afferent, receptors that go to spinal cord
9
Q
Interneurons
A
between other neurons, mainly found in CNS
10
Q
Motor neurons
A
Efferent, starts at CNS and ends up in muscles and glands
11
Q
Reflex Arcs
A
Interneurons in spinal cord relay info to the source of
stimuli while simultaneously routing it to the brain.
12
Q
What types of nervous system includes sympathetic and parasympathetic?
A
Autonomic (in peripheral NS)
13
Q
Somatic Nervous System
A
the part of the peripheral nervous system associated with the voluntary control of body movements via skeletal muscles. The somatic nervous system consists of afferent nerves or sensory nerves, and efferent nerves or motor nerves.
14
Q
Acetylcholine
A
Used by somatic nervous system to move muscles. Also used by the parasympathetic and CNS.
15
Q
Dopamine
A
Maintains smooth movements and steady posture.
16
Q
Endorphins and Enkephalins
A
natural pain killers
17
Q
Epinephrine &
Norepinephrine
A
Maintain wakefulness and mediate F/F responses.
Epinephrine tends to act as a hormone, norepinephrine a neurotransmitter.
It is released by adrenal medulla and causes physiological changes associated with the SNS
18
Q
Gama-aminobutyric Acid or GABA
A
inhibitory NT, acts as a brain stabilizer, and glycine is another example of this
19
Q
Glutamate
A
excitatory NT
20
Q
serotonin
A
modulates mood, sleep, eating, and dreaming
21
Q
Cortisol
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stress hormone released by the adrenal cortex; also promotes wakefulness
22
Q
Testosterone and Estrogen
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mediates libido; testosterone increases aggressive behavior; both are produced in gonads, and released by adrenal cortex
23
Q
Hypothalamus
A
Homeostasis and the 4 F’s : fighting, fleeing, feeding, and fornication
For the endocrine system, signals go from hypothalamus to hypophyseal portal, and anterior pituitary
24
Q
Basil Ganglia
A
Smooths movements and helps postural stability
25
Septal Nuclei
part of the limbic system and aids in pleasure and addiction
26
4 Frontal Lobes
Frontal: Executive function, impulse control, speech, motor.
Parietal: Touch, pressure, temp, pain, spatial processing.
Occipital: Visual
Temporal: Sound, speech perception, memory, emotion.
27
Development of the Nervous System
develops through neurulation, in which the notochord stimulates overlying ectoderm to fold over, creating a neural tube topped with neural crest cells; the neural tube becomes the CNS and the neural crest cells spread out throughout the body, differentiating into many different tissues
28
Four Primitive Reflexes, meaning they exist in infants and disappear with age
Rooting Reflex: Turns head toward stimulus.
Moro Reflex: Extends arms, response to falling sensation.
Babinski Reflex: Big toe is extended and other toes fan
out in response to brushing on sole of foot.
Grasping Reflex: Grabs anything put into hands.
29
Sensory Ganglia
Collection of cell bodies outside the CNS
30
Threshold of Conscious Perception
The minimum stimulus energy that will create a
signal large enough in size and long enough in
duration to be brought into awareness.
31
Weber's Law
Just Noticeable Difference (JND) for a stimulus is
| proportional to the magnitude of the stimulus.
32
Signal Detection Theory
Refers to the effects of nonsensory factors, such
as experiences, motives, and expectations on
perception of stimuli. Accounts for response bias.
33
Macula
center part of retina, where the fovea is located
34
Iris
Controls size of pupil. Colored part of eye. Divides front of the eye into the anterior & posterior chamber. It contains 2 muscles, the dilator and constrictor pupillae.
35
Aqueous Humor
Produced by the ciliary body. Nourishes the eye and gives the eye its shape. Drains through the canal of Schlemm ( a lymphatic like vessel found in the eye)
36
Retinal Disparity
Space between eyes; allows for binocular vision and depth.
37
Horizontal and Amacrine Cells
Integrates signals from ganglion cells and performs edge-sharpening, which is sharpness to an image
38
Parallel Processing
Color, form, and motion processed at the same time
39
Magnocellular cells
you can see motion, so high on temporal resolution
40
Parvocellular cells
you can see shapes well, so high spatial resolution
41
Visual Pathway
Eye-Optic Nerve- Optic Chiasm- Optic tracts- Lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN)- visual radiation- visual cortex
42
Bony Labryinth vs Membranous Labryinth
both located in inner ear; bony- filled with perilymph and membranous- filled with endolymph, and consists of the cochlea, utricle (horizontal acceleration) and saccule (vertical acceleration) and semicircular canals
43
Superior Olive
localizes sound; located in the brain stem
44
Inferior Colliculus
startle reflex; also used by both eyes and ears in the vestibulo-ocular reflex, which keeps the eyes fixed on a singe point as the head rotates
45
Auditory Pathway
cochlea- vestibulochoclear nerve- medial geniculate nucleus (MGN)- auditory cortex
46
Somatosensation
Refers to the four touch modalities: Pressure, vibration, pain, temperature
47
Two- Point Threshold
Minimum distance necessary between 2 points of stimulation on the skin such that the points will be felt as two distinct stimuli.
48
Physiological Zero
The normal temperature of skin to which objects are compared to.
49
Nociceptors
pain reception; gate theory of pain; and the there is a decrease for the JND for pain
50
Kinesthetic Sense
proprioception- perception or awareness of the position and movement of the body
51
Detail Difference between Top-Down and Bottom-Up Processing
TD uses little attention to detail because you're using background knowledge to recognize, where as for BU, you see all the details as a whole because of no influence on background knowledge
52
Gestalt Principle is governed by which principle?
Law of Pragnanz which states that objects in the environment are seen in a way that makes them appear as simple as possible
53
Associative Learning
a style of learning that happens when two unrelated elements (for example, objects, sights, sounds, ideas, and/or behaviors) become connected in our brains through a process known as conditioning
54
Which type of encoding information into memory is the strongest?
```
Semantic encoding (words, phrase, picture, event) is stronger than acoustic and visual encoding
- Semantic Networks- stores facts
```
55
Explicit (declarative) Memory
Accounts for memories that
| we must consciously recall with effort and focus
56
Implicit (non declarative) Memory
Accounts for acquired skills
| and conditioned responses to circumstances and stimuli
57
Alzheimers Disease
Degenerative brain disorder linked to a loss of acetylcholine in neurons that link to hippocampus. Causes
dementia and memory loss.
58
Korsakoff’s Syndrome
Memory loss caused by thiamine (Vitamin B1) deficiency in the brain. Causes retrograde amnesia and anterograde amnesia. Another symptom is confabulation, the fabrication of vivid but fake memories.
59
Agnosia
Loss of ability to recognize objects, people, or sounds. Usually caused by physical damage to brain
60
Retroactive Interference vs Proactive Interference
New memories make you forget old memories. vs.
| Old memories interfere with learning new memories.
61
Information Processing Model
The brain encodes, stores, and retrieves information much like a computer
62
Deductive vs Inductive Reasoning
Deductive- form conclusion from rules
| Inductive- form conclusion from evidence
63
Mental Set
A pattern of approach for a given problem
64
Functional Fixedness
The tendency to use objects only in the way they are normally utilized. Creates barriers to problem-solving.
65
Heuristics
essentially a rule of thumb
- There are 2 types: availability- decision made based on what first comes to mind and is imagined
representativeness- make a decision about actions and events based on stereotypes
66
Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligence
7 areas of intelligence: Linguistic, logical-
mathematical, musical, visual-spatial, bodily-
kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal
67
State of Alertness
EEG shows BETA waves, and ALPHA waves are when you're awake, but tired
BETA: have a high frequency and low amplitude
ALPHA: synchronous
68
What kind of waves are present for hypnosis and meditation?
Theta
69
Depressants
Alcohol, barbiturates, benzodiazepines. Increased GABA.
70
Stimulants
Amphetamines, cocaine, ecstasy. Dopamine,
| norepinephrine, and serotonin levels increase at synaptic cleft.
71
Opiates & Opioids
Heroin, morphine, opium, oxycodone & hydrocodone.
| Can cause death by respiratory depression.
72
Hallucinogens
LSD, peyote, mescaline, ketamine
73
Mesolimbic Pathway
Mediates drug addiction. Includes nucleus accumbens,
medial forebrain bundle, and ventral tegmental area.
Dopamine is the main neurotransmitter.
74
Phonology
the actual sound of speech
75
Morphology
the building blocks of words
76
Semantics
the meaning of words
77
Syntax
the rules dictating word order
78
Pragmatics
Changes in language delivery depends on context.
79
Nativist (biological) Theory
Language acquisition is
| innate.
80
Learning (behaviorist) Theory
Language acquisition is
controlled by operant conditioning and reinforcement
by parents and caregivers.
81
Social Interactionist Theory
Language acquisition is
caused by a motivation to communicate and interact
with others.
82
Linguistic Relativity
| Whorfian Hypothesis
The lens by which we view and interpret the world is created by language.
83
Broca's Area
produce speech, so aphasia here will create difficulties to generate speech
84
Wernicke’s Area
language comprehension, so aphasia here will lead to lack of understanding
85
Arcuate Fasciculus
Connects Broca’s Area and Wernicke’s Area; and aphasia here is called conduction, and it results in the person not being able to repeat words
86
Activation Synthesis Theory
Dreams result from brain activation during REM
| sleep. Activation in brainstem, synthesis in cortex.
87
Dyssomnias
Difficult to fall asleep, stay asleep, or avoid sleep. Insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea.
88
Parasomnias
Abnormal movements or behaviors during sleep. Night terrors, sleepwalking.
89
Selective Attention
Allows one to pay attention to particular stimulus
while determining if additional stimuli in the
background require attention
90
Divided Attention
Uses automatic processing to pay attention to multiple activities at one time
91
Instinct Theory
People perform certain behaviors because of their
| evolutionarily programmed instincts.
92
Optimal Arousal
| Theory
optimal performance requires optimal arousal, and so if arousal levels are too high or too low, then it will impede performances
93
Primary drives vs Secondary drives
Primary: related to biological processes
Secondary: stems from learning
94
Drive Reduction Theory
Motivation arises from the desire to eliminate drives,
| which create uncomfortable internal states.
95
Self-Determination Theory
Emphasizes 3 universal needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness.
96
Incentive Theory
Explains motivation as the desire to pursue rewards an
| avoid punishments.
97
Opponent-Process
| Theory
Explains motivation for drug use: as drug use increases,
| the body counteracts its effects, leading to tolerance and uncomfortable withdrawal symptoms.
98
House Money Effect
prior gains lead to greater risk taking in subsequent periods
99
Gambler’s Fallacy
If something happens more frequently than normal, it
| will happen less frequently in the future, or vice versa
100
Prisoner's Dilemma
Two people act out of their own self-interest, but if they
| had cooperated to the original plan of staying silent for example, the result would have been even better
101
7 Universal Emotions
Happiness, sadness, contempt, surprise, fear, disgust and anger
102
Primary vs Secondary Stres Appraisal
Primary- Classifying a potential stressor as irrelevant, benign-positive, or stressful.
Secondary- Evaluating if the organism can cope with the stress.
103
Dealing with a stress in a positive vs negative way:
Positive- eustress
| Negative- distress
104
General Adaptation Syndrome
Specific stressors do not have specific responses,
they all generate the same general physical stress
response.
1. Alaram 2. Resistance 3. Exhaustion
These involve both the sympathetic nervous system
and the endocrine system; release of ACTH leads to
cortisol.
105
Freud's Psychosexual Stages: failure at any stage leads to fixation, which causes personality disorder
```
0 - 1 :Oral
1 - 3 : Anal
3 -6 : Phallic
6 - puberty : Latent
Puberty - Adult : Genital
```
106
Where does Erikson's stages stem from?
Conflicts throughout life
107
Vygotsky
Zone of Proximal Development: The skills that a child has not yet mastered and require a more
knowledgeable other to accomplish.
108
Kohlberg Stages of Moral Development
Pre- Conventional- I'll get in trouble if I don't share my toys
Conventional- drive slower or you will break the law
Post-Conventional- Just because the law says so, it doesn't mean it is ethical
109
Psychoanalytic Perspective
Personality results from unconscious urges & desires.
| Ex. Freud, Jung, Adler, and Horney.
110
Freud's Theory
Id- what I want now
Superego- what is ideal
Ego- middle ground; this uses defense mechanisms to lower stress levels
^ all of these are partially unconscious
111
Jung
Collective unconscious links all humans together.
| Personality is influenced by archetypes.
112
Alder and Horney
Unconscious is motivated by social urges.
113
PEN Trait Theory
Psychoticism (nonconformity), extraversion (sociable), neuroticism (arousal in stressful situations).
114
Basic 5 Trait Theory (OCEAN)
Openness, conscientiousness, extraversion,
| agreeableness, and neuroticism.
115
3 Basic Traits
```
Cardinal traits (traits around which a person
organizes their life), central traits (major characteristics of
personality), secondary traits (more personal
characteristics and limited in occurrence).
```
116
Behaviorist Perspective
Our personality develops as a result of operant
| conditioning. E.g. it is reward and punishment based
117
Bipolar and Related Disorders
Manic or hypomanic episodes.
Bipolar I: At least one manic episode.
Bipolar II: At least one hypomanic episode & at least one major
depressive episode.
Cyclothymic Disorder: Hypomanic episodes with dysthymia.
118
Dissociative Disorders
- Dissociative Amnesia: Can’t recall past experiences.
- Dissociative Fugue: Assumption of a new identity.
- Dissociative Identity Disorder: Multiple personalities.
- Depersonalization / Derealization Disorder: Feeling detached
from the mind and body, or environment.
119
Somatic Symptoms and Related Disorders
- Somatic Symptom Disorder: “Somatoform disorder”. A somatic symptom causes disproportionate concern.
- Illness Anxiety Disorder: Preoccupation with thoughts about having or coming down with illness.
- Conversion Disorder: Associated with prior trauma, involves unexplained symptoms resulting in loss of body function.
- Hypochondriasis: “Illness Anxiety Disorder”. One strongly believes he or she has a serious illness despite few or no symptoms.
120
Personality Disorder Clusters
Cluster A: “weird” - Paranoid, schizotypal, schizoid.
Cluster B: “wild” - antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic.
Cluster C: “worried” – avoidant, dependent, OC.
121
Depression
glucocorticoids go up, and norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine all go down
122
Bipolar Disorder
norepinephrine and serotonin go up; also heritable
123
Alzheimer's Disease
genetic factors; brain atrophy (loss of cells); decrease in acetylcholine; and senile plaques of beta-amyloid
124
3 components of attitude:
Affective, behavioral, and cognitive
125
Functional Attitudes Theory
States that there are four functional areas of
attitudes: knowledge, ego expression, adaptability,
and ego defense.
126
Learning Theory
States that attitudes are developed through forms of
learning: direct contact, direct interaction, direct
instruction, and conditioning.
127
Elaboration Likelihood Model
States that attitudes are formed and changed through different routes of information processing based on degree of elaboration: central route processing, peripheral route processing.
128
Social Cognitive Theory
States that attitudes are formed through watching
| others, personal factors, and the environment. People change their behavior or attitudes based on observation.
129
Sanctions
- Positive: A reward for a certain behavior.
- Negative: A punishment for a certain behavior.
- Formal Sanction: An official reward or punishment.
- Informal Sanction: A sanction that is not enforced or punished by an authority but that occurs in everyday
interactions with other people. Ex: Asking someone to lower their voice in a movie theater.
130
What is least to most unacceptable amongst the 4 socialization rules?
1. Folkways
2. Mores
3. Norms
4. Taboos
131
Differential Association Theory:
Deviance (violation of norms) can be learned through our interactions with others.
132
Compliance
When individuals change their behavior based on the
| requests of others.
133
Affinal vs Consanguineous Kinship
A: related by choice
C: related through blood
134
Gemeinschaft
Community
135
Gesellschaft
Society
136
Basic Model of
| Expressing Emotions
States that there are universal emotions and
| expressions that can be understood across cultures.
137
Display Rules
Unspoken rules that govern the expression of emotions.
138
Interpersonal Attraction
Is what makes people like each other. Influenced by
physical attractiveness, similarity of thoughts and
physical traits, self-disclosure, reciprocity, & proximity.
139
Mating System
Describes the way in which a group is organized in
| terms of sexual behavior
140
Polygyny vs Polyandry
Polygyny: Male with multiple females.
Polyandry: Female with multiple males.
141
Promiscuity
No exclusivity
142
Social Perception
(Social cognition). The way by which we generate
impressions about people in our social environment.
It contains a perceiver, target and situation
143
Implicit Personality Theory
When we look at somebody for the first time, we pick
up on one of their characteristics. We then take that characteristic and assume other traits about the person based off of that one characteristic we first
picked up on
144
Dispositional
Internal. Causes of a behavior are internal.
145
Correspondent Inference Theory
Focuses on the intentionality of a person’s behavior. When someone unexpectedly does something that either helps or hurts us, we form a dispositional attribution; we correlate the action to the person’s personality.
146
Attribution Substitution
Occurs when individuals must make judgments that
are complex but instead substitute a simpler solution
or heuristic.
147
4 Tenets of Medicine
Beneficence, nonmaleficence, respect for autonomy, and justice.
148
Globalization
The process of integrating a global economy with free
| trade and tapping of foreign labor markets.
149
Urbanization
The process of dense areas of population creating a pull
| for migration.
150
Functionalism
States that social stratification is necessary and results from the need for those with special intelligence, knowledge, and skills to be a part of the most important professions and occupations. A harmonious equilibrium.
151
Anomie
Lack of social norms, or the breakdown of social bonds
| between individuals and society.
152
Strain Theory
Focuses on how anomic conditions can lead to deviance, and in turn reinforce social stratification.
153
Relative Deprivation Theory
People seek to acquire something that others possess and which they believe they should have too. They are not necessarily poor, but they may perceive that they are
lacking resources or money. It is all relative.
154
Social Reproduction
The passing on of social inequality, especially poverty, from one generation to the next.
155
Incidence vs Prevalence Difference
Incidence: The # of new cases of a disease per population at risk.
Prevalence: The # of cases of a disease per population.
156
Medicare Vs Medicaid
Medicare: Covers people greater than 65 years old, those with end- stage renal disease, and those withALS.
Medicaid: Covers patients in significant financial
157
Ethnic Migrants
Ethnic groups emigrating to more industrialized countries
| tend to have an increased fertility and overall mortality compared to the industrialized nation’s population.
158
Affordable Care
| Act (ACA)
Attempts to increase health insurance coverage rates and reduce the cost of health care.
