Psychology/Sociology (Concept 8A, 8B, 8C)

Question 1

self-concept

Answer 1

an overarching idea we have about who we are—physically, emotionally, socially, spiritually, and in terms of any other aspects that make up who we are

Question 2

identity

Answer 2

encompasses the memories, experiences, relationships, and values that create one’s sense of self

Question 3

social identity

Answer 3

the portion of an individual’s self-concept derived from perceived membership in a relevant social group

Question 4

self-esteem

Answer 4

how we value and perceive ourselves

Question 5

self-efficacy

Answer 5

reflects confidence in the ability to exert control over one’s own motivation, behavior, and social environment

Question 6

external locus of control

Answer 6

the degree to which people believe that external forces have control over the outcome of events in their lives

Question 7

internal locus of control

Answer 7

the degree to which people believe that they have control over the outcome of events in their lives

Question 8

types of identities

Answer 8

race, religion, ethnicity, gender, sex, sexual orientation, etc.

Question 9

theories of identity development

Answer 9

Erik Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development (specifically the Identity versus Role Confusion stage), James Marcia’s identity status theory, and Jeffrey Arnett’s theories of identity formation in emerging adulthood

Question 10

imitation

Answer 10

the action of using someone or something as a model

Question 11

role-taking

Answer 11

the capacity to imagine another person’s perspective, and how one is viewed by others

Question 12

reference group

Answer 12

a group that individuals look to for “reference” or influence

Question 13

fundamental attribution error

Answer 13

cognitive attribution bias where observers underemphasize situational and environmental factors for the behavior of an actor while overemphasizing dispositional or personality factors

Question 14

culture in attribution

Answer 14

people from Western cultures tend to make more personal attributions, whereas people from collectivistic cultures tend to focus more on the situational explanations of behavior

Question 15

stigma

Answer 15

a mark of disgrace associated with a particular circumstance, quality, or person

Question 16

stereotype

Answer 16

a widely held but fixed and oversimplified image or idea of a particular type of person or thing

Question 17

ethnocentrism

Answer 17

evaluation of other cultures according to preconceptions originating in the standards and customs of one’s own culture

Question 18

cultural relativism

Answer 18

the ability to understand a culture on its own terms and not to make judgments using the standards of one’s own culture

Question 19

emotion in prejudice

Answer 19

that anger and disgust amplified the negative attitudes toward different groups, but in specific ways

Question 20

cognition in prejudice

Answer 20

cognitive processes are crucial in dealing with bias and prejudice; can help decrease prejudice

Question 21

self-fulfilling prophecy

Answer 21

an expectation or belief that can influence your behaviors, thus causing the belief to come true

Question 22

stereotype threat

Answer 22

the risk of confirming negative stereotypes about an individual’s racial, ethnic, gender, or cultural group which can create high cognitive load and reduce academic focus and performance

Question 23

achieved status

Answer 23

position that a person can acquire on the basis of merit and is earned

Question 24

ascribed status

Answer 24

the social status of a person that is assigned at birth or assumed involuntarily later in life

Question 25

role conflict

Answer 25

there is tension among multiple roles that are mutually exclusive

Question 26

role strain

Answer 26

there is tension that occurs in one role

Question 27

role exit

Answer 27

an individual stops engaging in a role previously central to their identity and begins the process of establishing a new identity

Question 28

primary group

Answer 28

a group held together by relationships formed by family and environmental associations, regarded as basic to social life and culture

Question 29

secondary group

Answer 29

groups of people who are not related or emotionally connected, yet work together to achieve a common interest, purpose or goal

Question 30

in group

Answer 30

an exclusive, typically small, group of people with a shared interest or identity

Question 31

out group

Answer 31

consists of anyone who does not belong to your group

Question 32

dyads

Answer 32

group of two

Question 33

triad

Answer 33

group of three

Question 34

ideal bureaucracy

Answer 34

everyone is treated equally and work responsibilities are divided by each team's areas of expertise

Question 35

iron law of oligarchy

Answer 35

all forms of organization, regardless of how democratic they may be at the start, will eventually and inevitably develop oligarchic tendencies, thus making true democracy practically and theoretically impossible, especially in large groups and complex organizations

Question 36

McDonaldization

Answer 36

the process of a society adopting the characteristics of a fast-food restaurant

Question 37

expressing and detecting emotion

Answer 37

done using facial expression, body posture, gestures, voice tone, and touch

Question 38

gender and emotion

Answer 38

differences in emotional expression may be primarily due to cultural expectations of femininity and masculinity

Question 39

front stage self

Answer 39

behavior when they know that others are watching

Question 40

back stage self

Answer 40

behavior when people aren't watching

Question 41

verbal communication

Answer 41

a type of communication where we use spoken and written words to get our message and information across to the other person

Question 42

nonverbal communication

Answer 42

encompasses a diverse range of signals that go beyond spoken language, such as gestures, facial expressions, body language, and vocal nuances like tone and rhythm

Question 43

animal signals and communication

Answer 43

animal communication includes visual; auditory, or sound-based; chemical, involving pheromones; or tactile, touch-based, cues

Question 44

attraction

Answer 44

the interest in and liking of one individual by another, or the mutual interest and liking between two or more individuals

Question 45

attachment

Answer 45

a deep and enduring emotional bond that connects one person to another across time and space

Question 46

aggression

Answer 46

behavior aimed at harming others physically or psychologically

Question 47

social support

Answer 47

everyday behaviors that, whether directly or indirectly, communicate to an individual that she or he is valued and cared for by others

Question 48

foraging behavior

Answer 48

all the methods by which an organism acquires and utilizes sources of energy and nutrients

Question 49

mating behavior

Answer 49

includes mate choice, intrasexual competition for mates, and parental care

Question 50

mate choice

Answer 50

evolve when the choosier sex experiences fitness advantages by selecting mates based on particular traits

Question 51

applying game theory

Answer 51

game theory is widely applied to study human as well as animal behaviors

Question 52

altruism

Answer 52

disinterested and selfless concern for the well-being of others

Question 53

inclusive fitness

Answer 53

a method of measuring evolutionary success

Question 54

dramaturgical approach

Answer 54

a sociological perspective that analyzes micro-sociological accounts of everyday social interactions through the analogy of performativity and theatrical dramaturgy, dividing such interactions between "actors", "audience" members, and various "front" and "back" stages

Question 55

individual discrimination

Answer 55

the behavior of individual members of one race/ethnic/gender group that is intended to have a differential and/or harmful effect on the members of another race/ethnic/gender group

Question 56

institutional discrimination

Answer 56

the behavior of an institution that is intended to have a differential and/or harmful effect on the members of another race/ethnic/gender group

Question 57

prejudice

Answer 57

preconceived opinion that is not based on reason or actual experience

Question 58

discrimination

Answer 58

the unjust or prejudicial treatment of different categories of people