Psychology Terms Flashcards
(126 cards)
1
Q
Learning
A
Lasting change in the way a person responds based on experience
2
Q
Reflexes VS Instincts
A
Automatic responses from a stimulus.
Complex patterns of behaviour from genetics
3
Q
Habituation
A
Decreased response to a stimulus after its repeated presentation
4
Q
Laws of Association
A
Conditions that thoughts become connects/associated with other thoughts
5
Q
Law of Similarity
A
Two things become connects if they are similar
6
Q
Law of Continuity
A
Two things can become connected if they happen close together
7
Q
Classical Conditioning
A
One of the first types of learning studied. A conditioned stimulus becomes connected with an unrelated conditioned stimulus
8
Q
Ivan Pavlov
A
Studied the digestive system of dogs. Best known for his work in Classical Conditioning
9
Q
Conditioned Response VS Conditioned Stimulus
A
A learned Response
A stimulus that brings a response through learning
10
Q
Stimulus Generalization
A
A response to a stimulus that is similar to the conditioned stimulus
11
Q
Stimulus Discrimination
A
The tendency to only respond to a specific range of stimulation
12
Q
Operant/Instrumental Conditioning
A
Learning to act on the environment in order to bring a consequence
13
Q
Edward Thorndike’s Law of Effect
A
An animals chance on repeating a behaviour depends on the behaviours consequence
14
Q
Reinforcement
A
Consequence to encourage behaviour
15
Q
Punishment
A
Consequence to discourage behaviour
16
Q
Extinction
A
No consequence follows the behaviour
17
Q
Positive Reinforcement VS Negative Reinforcement
A
Behaviour is followed by something the animal finds pleasant
Behaviour is followed by removal of something negative
18
Q
Positive punishment vs Negative punishment
A
Behaviour is followed by something negative to decrease behaviour
Behaviour is followed by the removal of something postive
19
Q
Schedule of Reinforcement
A
Determination of when a behaviour will be reinforced
20
Q
Continuous Reinforcement VS Fixed Ratio VS Variable Ratio
A
- Behaviour reinforced the same way every time behaviour happens
- Reinforced after a specified number of responses
- The number of times behaviour needs to be repeated for reinforcement changes
21
Q
Fixed Interval VS Variable Interval
A
Reinforcement after a certain amount of time
Reinforcement after varying amounts of time
22
Q
Social Learning
A
Individuals learn from those around them
23
Q
Observational Learning
A
We learn by watching the behaviour of others.
24
Q
Modeling VS Vicarious Conditioning
A
- When people reproduce the behaviour they observe from others
- When we learn the consequence of behaviour from watching what happens to others who do it
25
Tutelage
Teaching of skills and concepts through verbal explanation and instructions
26
PQ4R
A 6 step technique to help people learn written material.
| Preview; Question; Read; Reflect; Recite; Review
27
Unit 2
28
Memory
Our ability to take the information we have and properly form it so it can be stored, retrieved and used.
29
Encoding
The first step of Mental Processes. Processing of information and other input into your memory
30
Sensory Representation
Store what we receive in sensory mode (A song/mental picture of a place)
31
Verbal Representation
Information stored in words
32
Storage
Second stage in mental processes. The process of retaining or containing memory whether in short-term or long-term memory
33
Retrieval
Last stage in mental processes. The recollection of something in our memory
34
Sensory register
the most immediate form of memory. Last only a fraction of a second
35
Iconic VS Echoic storage
- momentary visual information memory
| - momentary auditory information memory
36
Short-Term memory
small storage of information in a person's consciousness. Last from a few seconds to a minute. Has limited storage
37
Chunking
The grouping of information into meaningful categories. Strategy used to increase amount of information in short-term memory.
38
Serial Position Effect VS Recency Effect VS Primary Effect
- The overall accuracy of recall can depend on the position of an item on a list
- People tend to remember the things at the end of a list best
- The first items on a list are easier to remember than the middle items
39
Long-term memory
Retain greater amounts of information for longer (for life) because it has representations of thoughts, feelings, images, and sounds.
40
Working Memory
Temporary storage and processing of information used to solve and respond to problems
41
Declarative Memory (explicit) VS Procedural Memory (Implicit)
- Facts and events and needs recall
| - "How to" information and procedures - more unconsious
42
Sematic memory VS Episodic Memory
- General life-based knowledge
| - Particular events that are specific to a context
43
Transience VS Absent-Mindedness VS Misattribution
- Our memories fade over time
- Our minds are preoccupied else where
- Misremember the source of information
44
Transience VS Absent-Mindedness VS Misattribution
- Our memories fade over time
- Our minds are preoccupied elsewhere
- We misremember the source of information
45
Suggestibility VS Persistence VS Bias
- When we think we remember something but it's really something someone told us
- The memories we want to get rid of but can't
- Remembering an event the way we want to remember it
46
Decay Theory
Forgetting happens because of fading memory connections. If a memory pathway isn't used in a long time it may change or decay
47
Interference and Retroactive interference and Motivated forgetting
- The confusion of two similar memories with each other
- Old information interferes with new information
- forgetting something for a reason
48
Unit 3
49
Thinking
The manipulation of information for a purpose (Making decisions, forming concepts)
50
Mental Images
Visual Representations we use when thinking
51
Mental Models
Representations that predict, explain, or describe the way things work
52
Categories and categorization and concepts
We place things in groups based on common characteristics
The process of placing something in a category
Mental representations of the categories (car, horse, cat...)
53
Prototypes
abstractions that contain the most common elements of a category (airbrushed image of item)
54
Basic Level
Broadest category, items chare common and distinctive characteristics (Dog)
55
subordinate level
below basic level. Unusual items like Penguins, they don't quite fit into the bird category. (Golden Retriever)
56
superordinate level
Abstract level, the items share few characteristics (Mammals)
57
Decision Making
Process of weighing pros and cons of different alternatives and making a choice
58
Problem Solving
Process of changing one situation into another to achieve a goal
59
Mental Simulation and Algorithms
(Problem Solving Strategies) - imaging the steps you have to take to solve the problem before you begin
- we use systematic procedures to come up with solutions
60
Functional fixedness and Confirmation bais
- Tendency to focus on one aspect of the item instead of the potential functions
- tendecy to look for affirmation of what we already believe
61
Reasoning - Inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning
the process where we formulate and evaluate arguments and beliefs - reasoning from specific information to general (saw four-legged animal barking we reason it's a dog)
-thinking from a set of assumptions, going from general to specific information
62
Syllogism and Analogical reasoning
- Type of deductive reasoning, the use of two premises to come to logical conclusion
- The process of understanding a novel or situation by using familiar one
63
Language and Whorfian hypothesis of linguistic relativity
- a system of symbols, meanings and sounds that allow us to communicate
- Theory about how language influences the way we think
64
Phonemes, morphemes, phrases and sentences
- Smallest unit of sound that makes up speech (vowels and consonants)
- Smallest units of meaning, made from combined phonemes (words, prefixes and suffixes)
- groups of words that convey meaning and serve as a unit
- organized groups of words to express intentions and thoughts
65
Syntax, Grammar and Semantics
- protocols in language referring to how words and phrases can be placed in a sentence
- system in language generating acceptable utterances and identifying those that aren't acceptable
- rules in language about the meaning of morphemes, words and phrases
66
Nonverbal Communication
gestures, facial expressions, body language and non-verbal vocalizations (sigh) (smiling, posture, eye contact)
67
Unit 4
68
Intelligence
Our ability to apply knowledge we have to our environment, using it to make our way successfully through the world.
69
Intelligence Tests, Sir Francis Galton, and Psychometric Instruments
- Measures the cognitive abilities of individuals and how they appear to others
- the first person to measure intelligence
- used to measure personality traits and intellectual skills
70
Alfred Binet and Mental age
- Create the model for most intelligence tests today, introduced mental age
- the average time when children are able to reach a certain score on an intelligence test
71
Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
Give a score to intellectual functioning by measuring how it compares to others (IQ = (MA/CA) X 100) MA is mental age CA is chronological age
72
David Wechlser and the Wechsler test
- Tried to make IQ tests less biased towards Native English speakers
- Uses subtests in order measure verbal and non-verbal intelligence
73
Psychometric Approach and Factor Analysis
- Way of understanding the notion of intelligence by evaluating how test scores correlate to a person's overall skill set and abilities
- Statistics based strategy to identify correlations using elements known as factors
74
Two Factor theory of intelligence, the G-factor and S-factor
(Charles Spearman) - two main types of common elements, general and specific
- General intelligence - score well in general knowledge
- specific ability to perform well in one thing but not others
75
Howard Gardner, Theory of Multiple Intelligence and Savants
- Different types of intelligence, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, verbal-linguistic, logical-mathematical, naturalistic, intrapersonal, visual-spatial, musical, and other intelligences
- people who suffer mental deficiencies but still excel in some areas
76
Emotional Intelligence
the ability to preseve emotions and use them to assist thinking, understand emotional meanings, and manage personal feelings
77
Unit 5
78
Motivation
Is the force behind the behaviour that makes us avoid some aspects of life and pursue others
79
Primary Needs and Secondary needs
Are the basic needs we all have (food, water, air)
| The needs we learn, like preferences
80
Homeostasis
chance to move forward into a need-free/drive-free state
81
Drive-reduction Theory
Motivation comes from both reinforcement and drive
82
Primary Drive, Secondary Drives, and Incentives
- An innate need for things like food and water
- Like money; drives from learning and past conditions
- external rewards
83
Arousal Theory and Yerkes-Dodson Law
- we all have an optimal arousal level that we are constantly trying to reach
- As arousal increases so do our motivation and preformance
84
Goals and Goal setting theory
- Desired outcomes we achieve through social learning
| - conscious goals greatly influence our motivation
85
Intrinsic Motivation, Extrinsic Motivation and Self determination theory
- enjoyment of activity for it's own sake (internal rewards)
- External rewards like trophies
- People have an innate need for competence, autonomy, and relatedness to others
86
Hierarchy of Needs
(Abraham Maslow) Our basic survival needs need to be met before our higher needs. (low to high - Physiological, safety, love and belonging, self-esteem, self-actualization)
87
Emotions and Moods
- Positive and negative feelings
| - Extended period of emotional state
88
James-Lange theory VS Cannon-Bard Theory
emotions are part of the peripheral nervous system and central nervous system interprets reaction
-stimuli produces both psychical and emotional response at the same time
89
Appraisal theory
How individuals process and evaluate their situations according to how they feel
89
Appraisal theory
How individuals process and evaluate their situations according to how they feel
90
Two-factor theory of emotion
people must have both an automatic physiological arousal and social label to help them interpret their feelings
91
Unit 6
92
Health Psychology
Study of how psychological influences affect human vitality, make them ill or affect illness.
93
Humoral theory of illness
disease occurs in body when fluids like plghem, blood, black and yellow bile become imbalanced also believed imbalances cause psychological illnesses
94
Stress, eustress, and distress
- Challenge a person faces when forced to adapt to inner and outer threats and demands both perceived and real
- Healthy stress (positive feelings)
- Negative stress (adverse feelings)
95
General-Adaptation syndrome
3 stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion. ( 1st is flight or fight, still on alert but back to normal, then exhaustion)
96
Holmes-Rahe scales
Measures the stress of common life events (In order; Death of spouse, divorce, marital separation, jail term, family death, personal illness, marriage, fired, marital reconciliation, retirement, change in family health, pregnancy)
97
Approach-Approach, Approach Avoidance, Avoidance-Avoidance, Double approach avoidance
- choose between two postive goals
- choose between two negative goals
- person finds pros and cons in one particular goal
- choose between two choices, both with pros and cons
98
Coping/Coping mechanisms
Ways we deal with stress
99
Problems focused coping, Emotion focused coping, social support
- aim to change situation causing stress (ask for help, remove stress, or avoid stress)
- change person's thoughts about stressor by accessing consequences of stress (alcohol, food, drugs)
- presence of helpful caring people in life.
100
Unit 7
101
Personality
As an organized set of characteristics that make an individual different from others and influence their behaviours and thoughts
102
topographic model.
Original theory; mental process are made up of three parts, consciousness, pre-consiousness, and unconciousness
103
Conscious mental processes, pre-conscious mental processes, unconscious mental processes
- Rational, goal-orientanted, aware of
- Just out of conscious thinking, able to become conscious
- Repressed, irrational, kept out of consciousness
104
Ambivalence, Instinct model, life drive/libido
- conflicting thoughts or motives
- focus on drives and motivations of different people
- Pleasure seeking in a broader sense
105
Ambivalence, Instinct model, life drive/libido
- conflicting thoughts or motives
- focus on drives and motivations of different people
- Pleasure seeking in a broader sense
106
Structural Model, Id, Superego, Ego
- conflict of persons desires and real world constraits
- Untamed driven by impulse and instinct
- Balances Id, our ideals and models
- balance between both id and superego (between desire and reality)
107
personal constructs
mental pictures of people, places, and events
108
Behaviour-outcome expectancy and Self-efficiency expectancy and Self-regulation
- person's belief that if they act a certain way it will lead to expect result
- Notion about how they will preform to reach certain end
- setting goals, judging performance in achieving them, adjust objectives based on judgements
109
Traits
habitual patterns of emotions, behaviour and thoughts
110
Extroversion, Introversion, Neuroticism, and psychoticism
- Socail and Active
- Socially inhibit and cautious
- emotionally stable and emotionally instable
- antisocail, aggressive or impulsive
111
Five-Factor Model
Separtes traits into Big Five (OCEAN) Openness, Conscientiousness, Extrovertism, Agreeableness, Neuroticism
112
Temperament and person-by-situation interactions
A basic imposition influenced by our genes
| -idea the people show different traits in certain situations
113
True Self, False Self, Self Concept, and Ideal self
- Core aspect untainted by the demands and expectations
- Starts as mask morphs into true psychological self (to gain approval)
- Perception about one-self
- what individual thinks they should be
114
Actualizing Tendency and Culture Pattern Approach
desire to reach various human needs
| -individuals personality reflects cultural practices
115
Unit 8
116
Abnormal Psychology (Psychopathology) and Mental Disorders
Study of abnormal behaviour and thoughts, seeking to understand and correct certain thoughts and behaviours
-persistent abnormal functioning, most people experience symptoms of disorders occasionally
117
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) and ICD-10
contains working definitions of mental disorders
| -Internationaly Classification of disease with about 300 mental disorders
118
Anxiety, Generalized Anxiety, Panic Attacks, Phobias, and OCD
- feeling generated by apprehension or tension when someone anticipates danger 3 dimensions subjective experiences, behavioral responses, and physiological responses
- Individual experiences anxiety and worry most of the time
- sudden periods of intense fear without clear reason
- Intense irrational fear about particular objects and experiences (agoraphobia fear of being in room without escape)
- Obsessive Compulsive Disorder - involuntary persistent thoughts and repetitive behaviours
119
Affective or Mood Disorders
Persistent postive or negative emotions great enough to interfere with someones life
120
Major Depression, Bipolar Disorder
- despondent moods that last all day everyday for at least two weeks
- One or more episodes of mania and major depression
121
Personality Disorder
One or more of personality traits are maladaptive or a significant impairment to their functioning
122
Antisocial personality disorder, Borderline Personality Disorder, Narcissistic Personality Disorder
- Chronic indifference to people (Psychopath)
- Instability around conceptions of self and others
- grandoise thoughts of self and general lack of empathy to others
123
Somatoform Disorder
Psychological Disorders with physical symptoms
124
Hypochondria, Factitious disorder (by proxy),
- excessive worry about ones health, illnesses and diseases
| - Individual purposely tries to injure and sicken themselves, or someone in their care (by proxy)
125
Psychotic Disorders, Hallucinations, Delusions
- Ability to distort or break someones reality
- false sensory perceptions like hearing things)
- false beliefs
